INTELLIGENCE TESTING
A brief history of intelligence
● The concept of “intelligence” is
relatively new, unknown a century
ago, through it comes from older
Latin roots
● Inter = between, within + legere =
to bring together, gather, pick out,
choose, catch up, catch with the
eye, read; intellegere = to see into,
perceive, understand
● Francis Galton revived the term in
the late 19th century, arguing for
its innateness
● Some objected to the innateness
bias, and suggested the term be
replaced with “general scholastic
ability” or “general educational
ability”
● However, this did not catch on =
most theorists today posit a
construct of intelligence that is
independent of education
DEFINING INTELLIGENCE
BINET (1916)
- defined it as the capacity to judge
well, to reason well, and to
comprehend well
TERMAN (1916)
- defined it as the capacity to form
concepts and grasp their
significance
PINTER (1921) STERNBERG (1985)
- defined it as the ability of an - defined it as the mental capacity to
individual to adapt well to new automize information processing
situations in life and to emit contextually
THORNDIKE (1921) appropriate behavior in response to
- defined it as the power of good novelty
response from the point of view of GARDNER (1986)
truth or fact - defined it as the ability to solve
THURSTONE (1921) problems or fashion products
- defined it as the capacity to inhibit valued within some setting
instinctive response, imagine a
different response, and realize the DEFINING INTELLIGENCE
response modification into ● You can take your pick of
behavior definitions but most agree that
SPEARMAN(1923) intelligence has to do with the
- defined it as a general ability related capacities of:
involving mainly the ability to see I. learning from experience
relations and correlates II. adapting to one’s environment
WECHLSER (1939) ● Think of a person lacking either of
- defined it as the global capacity of these, and you pick out people who
an individual to act purposefully, seem to lack intelligence
think rationally, and deal ● Note however that very few formal
effectively with the environment tests of intelligence really demand
PIAGET (1972) subjects to do either of these
- defining it as referring to the
superior forms of organization or
equilibrium of cognitive
structuring used for adaptation to
the physical and social
environment
 ● Factor analytic studies (Sternberg,
1981) of informal views of an
“ideally intelligent’ person capture
these characteristics
- They emphasize practical
problem solving and social
competence as signs of
intelligence, along with a
factor loaded on verbal
ability
EARLY HISTORY ON THE
INTELLECTUALLY IMPAIRED-ERA
OF EXTERMINATION
● Prevailing attitude is one of
extermination
● Individuals with disabilities were
seldom allowed to live since
physical prowess was valued and
essential for the survival of the
group
PREHISTORIC TIME
● Abandonment
● Murdered
● Failure to survive (hard life style)
EARLY HISTORIC TIME (1552 B.C. -
300 A.D.)
● Very few records
● First written reference found in
Egyptian papyrus (Therapeutic
Papyrus of Thebes)
● Persons with the most severe
disabilities allowed to survive if
able
● Many forced to beg for food and
shelter
● Occurrence of a disability viewed
as sickness and as a punishment
from God for wrongdoing by the
parent
Aristotle stated that humans differ from
animals from animals by intellect alone
● There was no concept of individual
differences and intellect was noted
by man’s ability to speak
● Therefore if an individual was
unable to speak then s/he was no
different than an animal
ERA OF RIDICULE
● During this 1400 years most of the
attitude of people concerning
others with disabilities was that of
ridicule or neglect
● Persons viewed with a mixture of
fear and reverence
MIDDLE AGES (300 - 1350 A.D.)
● Emphasis was on “other” world -
little concern for anything but
religion and one’s own soul
● All forms of deviance were seen in
supernatural or superstitious terms
● Mental illness and mental
retardation seen as same condition
RENAISSANCE (1350 - 1700 A.D.)
● During this time attention shifted
from “other world” to man, his
nature, dignity, and senses
● Spirit of curiosity gave birth to
medicine and attempts to improve
man’s condition on earth
● Differences in disabilities were
noted but recognized only the
severest disabilities
ERA OF ASYLUM
● Lasted approximately 100 years
● Concept of equality and the
concept of humanism arose
AGE OF REASON (1700 - 1800 A.D.)
● Humanism stressed dignity of
person
● Phrases were heard such as “all
men are created equal” and
“equality, brotherhood and liberty”
● Individualism instead of Group
stressed
● Scientific approach was first used
with problems relating to
disabilities (e.g., MR)
1800’s
● Era of Education
● Time when mass education became
emphasis instead of education of
the few
- Grew out of 1700’s
concern for enlightenment
and individual worth
● During the movement for training
industrialization shifted man’s
work machines; education became
very important
MOVEMENT FOR TRAINING (1800 -
1890)
● Society became aware of the “slow
learner”
● Period of optimism-education seen
as a “cure”
● Significant people:
- Louis Braille
- Edouard Seguin
- Guggenbuhl (1940’s)
ERA OF INDICTMENT
● Late 1800’s is period of
disillusionment and pessimism
● Recognize the fact that there is no
“cure” for mental retardation
● Research of time indicated that
MR and other behavior disorders
were prime factors in crime and
degradation in country
1900’s - Did not design test to
● Time of Measurement (1890 - measure “intelligence”
1919 A.D.) - Created concept of mental
● First mental test was devised age (MA)
(Cattell)
● First special clas was founded in PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT
the U.S. in Providence, RI in 1896 IN THE 19TH CENTURY
● First program to prepare special ● Interest in science and
education teachers developed at measurement
NY University (1906) ● Emergence of psychology as an
● Significant people: experimental and quantitative
- Maria Montessori science
- Lewis Terman ● Interest in hereditary and
TIME OF SOCIAL CONTROL (1900 - neurological (“measurable”) basis
1930) of cognitive abilities (Galton)
● Publication of 1912 research study HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
of the Kallikak family by Goddard TESTING
States ● Basis of psychological testing
● Era overlapped the Era of - The significance of
Measurement and Social Control individual differences
HISTORY OF INTELLIGENCE - Why?
TESTING ● Interest in performance of
professionals
1. Head Circumference (Francis - Chinese system (2200 BC)
Galton 1880) - first attempts to - 19th century Europe
measure intelligence PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT
2. Binet-Simon (Alfred Binet 1909) IN THE 20TH CENTURY
- First intelligence test ● Public education and availability
- Commissioned by French of limited funds
gov to separate children ● Needs of the military for allocating
into vocational vs. personnel (WW I)
academic schooling
HISTORY OF IQ TESTING
● First IQ tests developed by Alfred
Binet
- Alfred Binet and Theodore
Simon
- 30 items of increasing
difficulty - 1905
- Revisions 1908 - age
specific versions
● These were developed to identify
children who needed “special”
education
- Binet believed that IQ
could be increased by
education
● Early IQ tests gave estimate of
children’s MENTAL age by
comparing their performance on
various tasks with performance of
children at various ages
● Calculated as
● IQ = Mental Age
Chronological age x 100
Nowadays NORM referenced..
That is the average performance of
a group is calculated, then
individual comparison
HENRY HERBERT GODDARD
Definition of Intelligence
- “... our thesis is that the chief
determiner of human conduct is a
unitary mental process which we STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE
call intelligence: that this process SCALE
is conditioned by a nervous 3. Lewis Terman (1916 - 72) first
mechanism which is inborn: that U.S. intelligence test
the degree of efficiency to be - Interested in gifted
attained by that nervous children
mechanism and the consequent - Translated and modified
grade of intelligence or mental Binet’s scale
level for each individual is - Heavy reliance on
determined by the kind of vocabulary/language skills
chromosomes that come together - Incorporated old items
with the union of the germ cells: from the Binet scale, plus
That it si but little affected by any some new items
later influences except such serious - Poorly standardized on
accidents as may destroy part of 1000 children and 400
the mechanism” (Goddard, 1920) adults who were not
Major Contributions selected with care
● Translated the Binet-Simon - Developed intelligence
intelligence scale into English Quotient
(1908) IQ = (MA/CA)*100
● Distributed 22,000 copies of the MA = Mental Aage; CA = Chronological
translated Binet scale and 88,000 Age
answer blanks across the United
States (1908 - 1915)
● Established the first laboratory for
the psychological study of
mentally retarded persons (1910)
● Helped to draft the first American
law mandating special education
(1911)
● Strongly argued the hereditarian
position
A BRIEF HISTORY OF
INTELLIGENCE TESTING
● The 1937 revision of the scale was
improved:
- It had wider range (more
room on the floor and
ceiling)
- It had two parallel forms to
permit re-testing
- It was standardized on a
carefully selected
population, of 100 children
in each six-month interval
from 6 to 14 years, and
100 in each year from 15
to 18, with control of sex,
selected from 17 different
communities (alas, they
were all white and
therefore, above average
SES)
● The test was re-normed in 1960
and 1972, and revised completely
in 1986 (SB-IV)
IQ TESTING IN THE USA
● In the USA strong supporters of IQ
testing were scientists who
believed that IQ is MAINLY
genetic, and that society should
breed a superior group of people
- This is called eugenics
3. Army Alpha/Beta IQ Test (1917)
- designed for WWI recruits
- Assumed to be testing
native intelligence
- Assumed intelligence and
literacy independent
- Alpha for literates; Beta
for illiterates and
non-English speakers
Alpha subtests: Oral Directions,
Arithmetic; Practical Judgment; Analogies;
Disarranged Sentences; Number Series;
Information
Beta subtests: Memory; Matching; Picture
Completion; Geometric Construction
SJ GOULD - A NATION OF MORONS
● YERKES said that:
- These tests measure
- NATIVE
INTELLECTUAL
ABILITY
● In other words, intelligence which
was unaffected by culture or
educational opportunities
● Gould reports many problems in
the administration of the tests
● Illiterate men were allocated to the
Alpha
● The queues for the Beta became so
long that some men were
reallocated to the Alpha
● Many who failed the Alpha were
never recalled
● The BETA test stil required men to
use pencils and paper - and many
had never been educated at all
● Gould suggests that all the results
should be viewed with scepticism
● However the results were used by
the army and had a great impact -
mental testing became…
“scientifically established’
● By 1021, commercial and
edcuational establishments were
using the tests
TEST CONCLUSIONS
● The average mental age of white
American adults stood at 13…
● It was possible to grade European
immigrants by their country of
origin
- People of Northern and
Western Europe higher
than the Slavs who were
higher than people of
southern Europe
● Black people scored lowest of all
● These “facts” were used to provide
a genetic explanation for the
differences
● Carl Brigham (Yerkes colleague)
● Explained the difference in terms
of racial superiority
 ● “We notice the Einsteins of the ● There is still no clear operational - Ravens Progressive
world because they are exceptional definition of intelligence Matrices, and many more
for their Jewish race” ● Both race and IQ are political - Some allow group testing,
Why is this not true? rather than biological facts by using closed-choice
● Immigration from different parts of ● Socially constructed formats, allowing for mass
Europe took place at different screening
times 4. Weschler Intelligence Scale THE IQ CONTROVERSY
- The most recent (David Weschler, 1939-81) ● On average, African-Americans
immigrants scored worse - Designed to show subtest score 10-15 points on IQ tests than
on the written tests.. If the scores Whites
native IQ was being - Less reliant on
measured written English language/vocabulary skills
Support for Support fo
should have NO effect - Contains Verbal and Genetic Argument Environmental
● Test scores rose with length of stay Performance subtests Argument
in the USA - Performance compared to
- Those who had been in the same age peers - raw score Black kids given Black kids adopted
USA longer were more has different interpretation IQ tests in “black by middle-class
English dialect” college educated
familiar with American depending on age
still scored 10-15 White families had
customs and products - Designed widely used test pts. lower than higher average
● Despite the evidence IQ tests took for adults (WAIS), general White scores than general
hold children (WISC), and sample Black sample
● 1924 US Congress passed the preschoolers (WPPSI)
Immigration Restriction Act Other intelligence tests Black kids Black kids
matched to White matched to White
● The Act set quotas for immigration ● There are myriad of other tests of
kids on SES and kids on SES and
to the US based on figures 30 years intelligence including: family variables family variables
earlier when immigration from - British Ability still scored lower scored much
Southern and Eastern Europe was Scale/Differential Ability on IQ test higher on IQ test
low Scale (DAS) than general Black
● There is still no good evidence to - Peabody Picture sample
suggest that IQ differences are the Vocabulary Test (PPVT-R) IQ scores of
result of genetic differences - Columbia Mental Maturity German children
Scale (CMMS)
 ● In reality, the instrument makes a more degrees and more
raised out of
wedlock did not difference: A Wechsler IQ may not money
differ depending be identical to a Stanford-Binet IQ - However, none went on to
on father’s race - It is important to specify become super-successful
the instrument Einstein-types
Phenotype (skin Can’t we make intelligence tests the ● Some suggested the positive
darkness) is
same? findings might be due to selection
correlated with IQ
scores, while ● Distributional characteristics bias, since the initial selection was
genotype (racial should make interchanging IQ based on teacher ratings
ancestry) is not scores easy ● Esquire magazine’s “the smartest
- Alas, intelligence is not people in America”
CONCLUSION TO IQ perfectly normal ● Marilyn Von Savant and her
CONTROVERSY - There is a hump at the mistakes
● Difference in scores is not due to bottom due to many Is IQ innate?
bias in test construction or factors which impinge on ● The literature on IQ heritability is
administration intelligence in early huge and controversial
● Difference in scores is not due to development ● Heritability in IQ has been
between group genetic differences - Some have argued that estimated between 0.50 and 0.72
● Difference in scores in partly due assortative mating has (= 50% - 72% of variability is due
to socio-economic class flattened the distribution to genes)
differences (= more very low and high ● The best evidence comes from
● Differences may be due to cultural scores than normal) twin studies (ie. Bouchard, 1984)
and “caste” type factors (racism, Does IQ matter? - IQ of identical twins
societal expectations) - still being ● Terman and Oden (1959) followed reared apart (even in very
investigated ultra-high IQ children (IQ > 140) different circumstances)
Are all intelligence tests the same? for 40 years correlate almost as high as
● Ideally IQ scores obtained with - The gifted children were those of identical twins
different instruments should be heavier at birth; walked, reared together
identical talked, and matured - Honzik (1957) showed
earlier; their general health almost no correlation
was better; they earned between IQ of adopted
 children and IQ of their
adoptive parents
Is IQ due to environment?
● However, children reared under
conditions of little human contact
can show huge improvements
(30-50 IQ points) after being
placed in normal environments
● Jensen (1977) tested the hypothesis
of cumulative effects of
environmental disadvantage,
hypothesizing that older deprived
children should do worse on IQ
tests than their younger siblings
- He found some support for
this hypothesis- about 1
point per year for ten years
between 5 and 16 years of
age, estimated to be higher
if earlier years were
included
- Disadvantaged adoptees
into advantaged homes
often out-perform their
pre-adoptive peers (Scarr
and Weinberg, 1983)
● A purely innate general
intelligence should be stable over
generations
● Intelligence is not stable
● Standardization samples major IQ nations: What IQ tests
tests between 1932 and 1981 really measure,
tended to be higher than their Psychological Bulletin,
predecessors 101, 88, 171-191
- Overall, humankind MODERN IQ TEST DESIGN
appears to have picked up ● Reliability (over time)
nearly 14 IQ points in the - Test-retest
last century - Internal consistency (items
- Similar observations have hang together)
been made in other ● Validity (what it measures)
countries using other tests - Content (face validity)
[however, note that this does not seem to - Criterion (relationship
have stopped humankind from engaging on with other knowns)
a huge scale this century in some - Construct (ability to
dangerously stupid behaviors…] differentiate)
● “... psychologists should stop
saying that IQ tests measure
intelligence. They should say that
IQ tests measure abstract
problem-solving ability (APSA), a
term that accurately conveys our
ignorance. We know that people
solve problems on IQ tests; we
suspect that those problems are so
detached, or so abstracted from
reality, that the ability to solve
them can diverge over time from
the real-world problem solving
ability called intelligence; thus far
we now little else.”
- Flynn, J.R. (1987).
Massive IQ gains in 14
PERSONALITY TESTING OPENNESS - I have very active - Self-consciousness
imagination. - Impulsiveness
3 facts to consider when defining AGREEABLENESS - I believe that most - Vulnerability
“Personality” people will take advantage of you if you let EXTRAVERSION
● Individuals are unique them. - Warmth
● Individuals behave differently in CONSCIENTIOUSNESS - I pay my - Gregariousness
different situations promptly and in full. - Assertiveness
● Although individuals are unique - Activity
and behave inconsistently across Example of Neuroticism facet: Anxiety - Excitement-seeking
situations, there is considerable - Positive emotions
commonality in human behavior ● I am not a worrier. OPPENNESS
PERSONALITY TESTS - USING ● I am easily frightened. - Fantasy
TRAITS ● I rarely feel fearful and anxious. - Aesthetics
● NEO - Personality Inventory ● I often feel tense and jittery. - Feelings
Revised (NEO PI-R, 1992) ● I am seldom apprehensive about - Actions
- Unaware of the Big Five, the future. - Ideas
Costa and McCrae built NEO - Personality Inventory Revised - Values
the NEO Inventory in (NEO PI-R, 1992) AGREEABLENESS
1978 ● 5 traits x 6 facets each x 8 items - Trust
● Assessed Neuroticism, each = 240 total - Straightforwardness
Extraversion, and Openness to ● Raw scores for the domain - Altruism
Experience converted to T scores - Compliance
● Added Agreeableness and ● Norms provided for adults (21 and - Modesty
Conscientiousness up) and college age individuals (17 - Tender-mindedness
● Items are behavioral statements - 20) CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
THE NEO PI-R (cont.) ● Norms come from 500 men and - Competence
Example of items: 500 women (U.S) - Order
NEUROTICISM - Frightening thoughts List of Domain and Facet Scores - Dutifulness
sometimes come into my head. NEUROTICISM - Achievement striving
EXTROVERSION - I don’t get much - Anxiety - Self-discipline
pleasure from chatting with people. - Angry hostility - Deliberation
- Depression
THE NEO PI-R (cont.) ● Gough’s theory (3 assumptions): CPI (cont.)
Other test characteristics - Important characteristics ● Either high or low scores
● Criterion validity: in all societies and cultures ● administration : 1 hr
conscientiousness - Understandable and useful ● Scores: count the “true” responses
● Construct validity (e.g., openness for both sides ● Gender specific norms
to exp.) - Valid predictors of future ● Converts raw scores to T scores
● Relies on honesty of examinee behavior in similar social ● CPI had factor loading on 4 of 5 -
● Reliability of domain scales - contexts Big 5 factors (extroversion,
excellent (highest is .92 for N, ● 462 true-false items covers 20 openness, neuroticism,
lowest is .86 for A) scales: conscientiousness) - not
● Reliability of facet scales - - Dominance, Social agreeableness
acceptable (highest is .80 for ideas Presence, Sociability, Other test characteristics
facet of O, lowest is .58 for Self-Acceptance, ● Construct validity: 20 scales are
Actions facet of O) Self-Control, not independent
Responsibility, Well-being, ● Predictive validity: best predicts
PERSONALITY TESTS - USING Achievement vs. - Academic
TRAITS Conformity, Achievement udnerachievement
vs. Independence, - Potential delinquency
CALIFORNIA PSYCHOLOGICAL Psychological - Job performance in a
INVENTORY (CPI) Mindedness, Flexibility, number of careers
● Gough (1957) Capacity for status, - Performance in school
● Revised in 1987 Empathy, Tolerance, Advantages:
● Based on 20 concepts Femininity vs. 1. Looks at interpersonal relating
● To predict behavior in Masculinity, well
social/interpersonal situations Independence, Good 2. Predicts underachieving, potential
● 13 special purpose scales (e.g., Impression, Socialization, delinquency, job performance
leadership, managerial potential) Communalitu 3. Has good norming sample
● One of the most popular - 3 scales provide measures
personality inventory of test-taking attitudes
● Measures: various facets of normal
personality; helps to make
predictions about behaviors
16 PERSONALITY FACTOR (16 PF)
● Raymond Cattell developed the
Cattell Sixteen Personality Factor
Test (1949)
● Revised 4 times (1956, 1962,
1968, 1993)
● Survey all words in the English
language that described personal
characteristics (approximately
4000)
● Categorized the words into 45
groups and approx. 15 factors
● Designed to measure more
personality traits and conflicts than
psychopathology
● 185 items across 16 scales
● 3 Point Likert Scale
● Suggests Personality is made up of
16 independent traits - warmth,
reasoning, emotional stability,
dominance, liveliness,
rule-consciouness, social boldness,
sensitivity, vigilance,
abstractedness, privateness,
apprehension, openness to change,
self-reliance, perfectionism,
tension
● Each item is scored a between 0, 1,
or 2 depending if the item is scored
correctly
● Raw scores are changed to
standard scores known as STEN
(out of 10). Standard scores are
calculated in reference to the norm
group.
Psychometric of 16PF
● Reliability: test-retest (.80; .70)
● Internal consistency reliability .74
● Most validity studies have validity
coefficients above .70
Supports:
1. Less time to give than MMPI-2
2. Has 5 global factors than
correspond to the BIG FIVE
3. Reliability and Validity
Criticisms:
1. Overeducated sample
2. New version more complicated to
score
3. Converts raw scires to “stens” -
hard for people to understand
16PF Applications
● Research and Clinical Settings
● Vocational Psychology
● Personnel selection and placement
● With adults or adolescents
(16-year-olds) and 5th grade
reading level
TWO MAIN PERSONALITY
THEORIES
1. Trait Theory: people differ based
on stable attributes (called “traits”)
- Characteristics lie on a
continuum
- E.g., the Big Five
2. Type Theory: people can be sorted
into categories (either one type or
the other)
There are many different personality
inventories that measure traits or types.
TYPE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
TYPE A
● Coronary-prone behavior pattern:
aggressive, need to achieve more
and more, workaholic, hidden lack
of self-esteem (always need to
prove self), always hurried, hostile
TYPE B
● Easygoing, noncompetitive,
relaxed
- People fall on a continuum
somewhere between the two
- Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR ● Factor analysis shows Big Five
● Based on Jungian theory of solution
Thinking-Feeling Perception-Judging
personality Scale Scale
Classifies individuals along 4 theoretically MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC
independent dimensions T: Judgment is P: Preference for PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI)
1. INTROVERSION/EXTROVERSIO impersonally based using a perceptive ● MMPI-II - most widely used
N (E-I): How is your general on logical process for dealing psychological test
consequences with the outer world
attitude toward the world? ● 10 clinical scales and several
2. SENSING/INTUITION (S-N): How F: Judgment is J: Preference for Auxiliary
do you acquire information? primarily based on using a judgment
3. THINKING/FEELING (T-F): How personal or social process for dealing
is information processed? values with the outer world
4. JUDGING/PERCEIVING: How do
you make decisions? MBTI Psychometrics
Test-retest intervals range from:
Extraversion-Introv Sensing-Intuition 1. INTROVERSION/EXTROVERSIO
ersion Scale Scale N (E-I): .73 to .83
2. SENSING/INTUITION (S-N): .69
E: Oriented S: Individual reports to .87
primarily toward observable facts 3. THINKING/FEELING (T-F): .43
the outer world; through one or more
to .75
focus on people and of the five senses
objects 4. JUDGING/PERCEIVING (J-P):
.58 to .84
I: Oriented N: Reports, MBTI (cont.)
primarily toward meanings, Uses:
the inner world; relationships and/or ● Career counseling
focus on concepts possibilities that have
● Team building
and ideas been worked out
beyond the reach of ● Family counseling
the conscious mind Criticisms:
● Profiles generally positive
● Barnum effect
● Validation evidence is sticky
CLINCAL SCALES FOR THE MMPI THE MMPI (cont.)
sensitive;
resentful; rigid; Scale Descriptor: Psychopathic Deviate
may be frankly ● Tend to act without considering
Scale Scale name Interpretation of
numbe High Scores psychotic consequences
r ● Experience absence of emotional
7 Psychasthenia Anxious; response
1 Hypochondriasis Excessive bodily worried;
● May feign guilt and remorse when
concer; somatic obsessive; lacks
self-confidence; in trouble
symptoms
problems in ● Are impulsive
2 Depression Depressed; decision making ● Are not seen as overwhelmed by
pessimistc; emotional turmoil
irritable; 8 Schizophrenia May have Example items:
demanding thinking
disturbance, ● I am about as able to work as I
Hysteria withdrawn; feels ever was.
3 Physical
symptoms of alienated and ● I work under a great deal of
functional origin; unaccepted tension.
self-centered; ● I am sure I get a raw deal from life.
demands 9 Hypomania Excessive
● I find it hard to keep my mind on a
attention activity; lacks
direction; low task or job.
Psychopathic frustration ● I am certainly lacking in
4 Asocial or
Deviate antisocial; tolerance; self-confidence.
rebellious; friendly ● I have difficulty in starting to do
impulsive, poor things.
judgment 0 Social-Introversi Socially
on ● When in a group of people I have
introverted; shy;
sensitive; trouble thinking of the right things
5 Masculinity-Fe Male: aesthetic
mininity interests overcontrolled; to talk about.
Female: conforming ● I cannot keep my mind on one
assertive; thing.
competitive;
self-confident

6 Paranoia Suspicious,
Original MMPI storytelling in response to pictures, idiosyncratic or revealing
● Items on the clinical scales of the etc. interpretations
original MMPI were selected on Three features: ● In 1986, Alfred Binet suggested
the basis of their ability to ● Disguised; no face validity that inkblots might be used to
discriminate between normal and ● Global: the whole personality assess personality (not
clinical groups. ● Reveals unconscious aspects of psychopathology)
● Clinical groups were comprised of personality ● Herman Rorschach, a Swiss
depressed, paranoid, Types: psychiatrist, was the first to
schizophrenic, hypomanic, ● Inkblot: Rorschach suggest (1911) the use of inkblot
hypochondriacal ● Picture interpretation: TAT responses as a diagnostic
● Normal groups were comprised of ● Sentence completion: Rotter instrument
University of Minnesota students Icomplete SB - In 1921, he published his
● Initially items were selected from ● Picture construction: DAP book on the test,
various sources - clinical cases, (Draw-a-Person) Psychodiagnostik (and
textbooks, and previous tests THE RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST soon thereafter died, age
MMPI II ● Is the most commonly used 38)
● MMPI-II was normed on a projective test ● Rorschach’s test was not
nationally representative sample - - In a 1971 survey of test well-received, attracting little
1138 men and 1462 women usage, it was used in 91% notice
● MMPI added several content and of 251 clinical settings - David Levy brought it to
supplementary scales survey the United States - thought
● A high score on a particular scale - It is one of the most it was scientifically
indicates the likelihood that the widely used tests that unsound.
individual possesses those exists - His student, Samuel Beck,
characteristics - It is widely cited in popularized its use here,
THE PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES research writing several papers and
● Projective tests allow the examinee HISTORY books on it starting with
to respond to vague stimuli with ● The earliest use of inkblots as Configurational
their own impressions projective surfaces was J. Kerner’s Tendencies in Rorschach
● Word association tests, inkblot (1857) Responses (1933)
tests, sentence completion tests, - He was the first to claim
that some people make
 ● Several other ealy users also
published work on the Rorschach
- Several offered their own
system of administration,
scoring, and interpretation,
leading to later problems
in standardization
What is the Rorschach?
● The stimuli were generated by
dropping ink onto a card and
folding it
- They are not, however,
random; the ten cards in
the current test were
hand-selected out of the
thousands that Rorschach
generated
● Ten blots - 5 black/white, 2
red/gray (II & III) and 3 color
(VIII - X)
● Thought to tap into the deep layers
of personality and bring out what
is not conscious to the test taker
● The following are the inkblots
Administering the Rorschach
The test is usually administered with as
little instruction and information as
possible.
● The tester asks “What might this
be?” and gives no clues or
restrictions on what is expected as
a response
● Anxious subjects often do ask
questions, and vague answers are
offered
● Some advocates sitting beside the
subject to avoid giving clues by
facial expression
● If only one response is given, some
hint to find more may be offered:
“some people see more than one
thing”
The cards are shown twice:
● The first time responses are
obtained - free association phase
● The second time they are
elaborated - inquiry phase
RORSCHACH (cont.)
Exner’s Comprehensive Scoring System
1. Location
- W = whole (intellectual
potential)
- D = subdivisions (common
sense)
- Dd = details (compulsive
tendencies)
- DW (confabulated detail)
2. Content (i.e., general class to
where response belongs)
- People, part of a person,
clothing, animal, part of an
animal, nature, anatomical
3. Determinants (i.e., specific
property of the blot)
- F = shape/outline (rational
approach)
- M = movement
(imagination)
- C = color (emotional
reactions)
- Y = shades of grey
(depression)
4. Form Quality
5. Typical vs. Unusual response
6. Time
Psychometric Properties of the
Rorschach
● The rorschach is a popular test,
however, it has been plagued by
low reliability and validity
● Obviously, it is difficult to measure
any of the usual psychometric
properties in the usual way
- Validity and reliability are
usually low because of the
open-ended multiplicity of
possibility that is allowed
and by the lack of
university-accepted
standardized instructions,
administration protocol,
and scoring procedure
Interpreting the Rorschach
● Uses norms of five groups:
non-patient, outpatient
nonpsychotic, in-patient character
problem, inpatient depressive,
inpatient schizophrenics
● Deviation from norms can mean an
invalid protocol, or brain damage,
or emotional problems, or a low
mental age (or just an original
preson)
Psychometric Properties of the
Rorschach
● Reliability studies that have been
done find r-values varying from
0.1 to 0.9
● Parker (1938) analyzed 530
statistics through meta-analysis (9
studies) and found an internal
reliability of .83
● W responses has been linked to
general intelligence (r = 0.4);
movement responses are said to
suggest strong impulses or high
motor activity; DW
(confabulatory) responses are
taken as signs of a disordered state;
low response rate is associated
with mental retardation,
depression, and defensiveness
● Overall, more research is needed to
determine the reliability and
validity of the Rorschach
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST
(TAT)
● Construct a story about what you
see on the following picture
Describe:
- What led up to the scene
- What is happening
- What the characters in the story
might think or feel
- How the story will end
● The Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT): 30 grayscale pictures + one
blank for elicitation of stories -
each contain a dramatic event or
critical situation
● Most subjects see 10-12 cards,
over two sessions
● Based on Murray’s (1938) theory
of 28 social needs (sex, affiliation,
dominance, achievement, attitudes
etc.)
● People would project into their
story their needs
● Attention is paid to the protagonist
in each story and his/her
environmental stressors
● Many variations on this
“story-telling” test exist
TAT (cont.)
● Administration: not standardized
- Not the same 20 cards
- Not the same order
- Seldom 2 sessions
- Instructions differ
● Scoring is Minimal
● Low Reliability and Validity
TAT - scoring/interpretation
SCORING
● Congruence with picture stimuli
● Conformity with directions
● Conflict
PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES
● Internal consistency is low;
● High reliability but diminishes
with time, 2 months, r = .80; 10
months r = .50;
● Inter-rater reliability vary with
studies: range .3 to .9
Examples of Projectives
● Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank
(RISB)
Example:
Complete the following sentences to
express your real feelings:
- I like…
- My greatest fear is…
- This psychology instructor is…
RISB (cont.)
● Designed to screen for emotional
maladjustment
● Info about wishes, desires, likes,
dislikes, fears, and locus of control
● 40 items: easy to administer (group
or individual)
● Rigorous scoring system: high
interrater r
● Scoring ranges from 0 to 6
● Responses are scored as to the
degree of conflict expressed,
optimism shown, length of
responses, omissions
● Psychometrically sound but less
used
DRAW-A-PERSON TEST
● Originally to assess children’s
intelligence
● Now: a screening procedure for
emotional disturbance
● Cannot constitute a diagnosis
● The administration:
- Draw a person
- Draw a person of the
opposite sex
- Draw yourself
● Administrator asks:
- Can you please draw a
person?
- Draw whatever you like in
any way you like?
● Administrator then asks:
- Draw a person of the
opposite sex?
DRAW-A-PERSON TEST (cont.)
● Subjective vs. quantitative scoring
system
● Clinician looks for:
- Sequence of body parts
- Verbalizations during the
drawing process
- Size and placement of
figures on the page
- Amount of action depicted
- Systematization in doing
the task
- Number of erasures
- Shading
- Gender of picture
- Over attention to certain
body parts
● Among the plausible but
empirically untrue relations that
have been claimed:
- Large size = Emotional
expansiveness or acting
out
- Small size = Emotional
construction; withdrawal,
or timidity
- Overworked lines =
tension, aggression
- Distorted or omitted
features = conflicts related
to that feature
- Large or elaborate eyes =
Paranoia
Other common projective tests
● CAT - Children Apperception Test
- (Bellak, 1975)
● Word Association Test - Rapaport
et al. (1946, 1968) - 60 words:
neutral and traumatic - scored:
popularity, RT, content, test-retest
responses
● Sentence Completion - Rotter
Incomplete - Sentences Blank - 40
sentences - evaluated on 7 point
scale by “need for therapy” to
“extremely good adjustment”
● House-Tree-Person Test (Buck,
1948) & Draw-A-Person
(Machover, 1949): Subject is asked
to draw
- Scoring is on absolute size,
relative size of elements,
omissions
SOURCES OF INACCURACY IN
PERSONALITY TESTING
● Personality assessment largely
depends on self-report
 ● Response sets may affect
personality results
SOCIAL DESIRABILITY
Some test takers choose socially acceptable
answers or present themselves in a
favourable light
● People often do not attend as much
to the trait being measured as to
the social acceptability of the
statement
● This represents unwanted variance
Example items:
- Friends would call me
spontaneous.
- People I know can count on me to
finish what I start.
- I would rather work in a group
than by myself.
- I often get stressed-out in many
situations.
FAKING
Some test takers may respond in a
particular way to cause a desired outcome
● May “fake good” (e.g., in
employment settings) to create a
favourable impression
● May “fake bad” (e.g., in clinical or
forensic settings) as a cry for help
or to appear mentally distrubed
● May use some subtle questions
that are difficult to fake because
they aren’t clearly face valid
“FAKING BAD”
● People try to look worse than they
really are
- Common problem in
clinical settings
● reasons:
- Cry for help
- Want to plea insanity in
court
- Want to avoid draft into
military
- Want to show
psychological damage
● Most people who fake bad overdo
it
RANDOM RESPONDING
May occur when test takers are unwilling
or unable to respond accurately
● Likely to occur when test taker
lacks the skills (e.g., reading), does
not want to be evaluated, or lacks
attention to the task
● Try to detect by embedding a scale
that tends to yield clear results
from vast majority such that a
different results suggests the test
taker wasn’t cooperating
Detection:
● Duplicate items:
- “I love my mother.”
- “I hate my mother.”
● Infrequency scales:
- “I’ve never had hair on my
head.”
- “I have not seen a car in 10
years.”
IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
Mitigating IM:
● Use positive and negative
impression scales (endorsed by
10% of the population)
● Use lie scales to “flag” those who
score high (e.g., “I get angry
sometime”)
● Inconsistency scales (e.g., two
different responses to two similar
questions)
● Use multiple assessment methods
(other than self-report)
TESTING IN EDUCATIONAL AND Purpose of Psychological Testing: Purpose of Psychological Testing:
CLINICAL SETTING Prediction Classification
● Used by school administrators, ● Educators and counselors will be
1. Educational Setting teachers, psychologists to predict able to classify or place students
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING what will likely be the students’ into groups based on learning,
● Part of the major ingredient of an future performance and behavior in behavior, career aspirations/needs
educational system a given skill Example:
● Measure unobserved constructs Example: - Remedial or Enrichment
● Measuring instrument at the - Entrance examinations give an Purpose of Psychological Testing:
disposal of a teacher, counselor, underlying assumption that those Guidance and Counseling
psychologist who perform well are those who ● Makes available appropriate and
● Important that it measures will likely understand, learn, and relevant data about individual
learner’s learning outcomes or perform well. students’ attitude, interest, learning
educational achievements Purpose of Psychological Testing: outcome competency, and many
Meaning and Nature of Psychological Selection others Psychological
Testing ● Can easily be used to select quality characteristics
● Systematic means through which or qualified candidates ● Help counselors and teachers to
data can be obtained about an ● Selection aids educators in guide students to resolve academic,
individual’s trait and learning selecting students for educational social, and psychological problems
outcomes or academic programs, scholarship awards, Purpose of Psychological Testing:
achievement admission to universities, colleges, Research Purposes
● Well-designed instrument to etc. ● Results analyze research questions
measure psychological Purpose of Psychological Testing: and hypotheses of a study
characteristics and learning Evaluation ● Need for further research may arise
outcomes ● Scores serve as relevant data in where data can be useful
● Could be questionnaires and test which educational administrators Measures of Typical Performance (Types
batteries can determine effectiveness of an of Non Cognitive Tests)
● Use of standardized test or instructional process, educational ● Attitude test
instrument to objectively measure program ● Personality test
behavior ● Intelligence test

ATTITUDE TEST
 ● Capture typical or habitable ● Interested in predicting what the ● Help interviewee learn more about
response of an individual to certain individual can learn or develop in himself
issues or persons the future ● Interviewers learn about
● Common type: Likert Scale Example: interviewees
PERSONALITY SCALE - Aptitude test given to high school - Structured interview
● Concerned with affective or non students to determine which type - Unstructured interview
intellectual aspects of behavior of careers they might be good at CASE HISTORY DATA
● Interest, emotion, self-concept, ABILITY TEST ● Biographical and related data
attitude, feeling ● Measure the abilities or mental about assessee
● Commo techniques: self-reports, processes that underlie aptitude ● Hospital records, school records,
checklists, personality military records, employment
questionnaire 2. Clinical Setting records
INTELLIGENCE TEST CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY ● Data are combined to obtain
● Measure reasoning, ● Prevention, diagnosis, and understanding
comprehension, judgment treatment of abnormal behavior PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
Measures of Maximum Performance Clinical Assessment ● Clinicians use many different tests
(Types of Cognitive Test) ● Clarify the psychological problem in the course of their practices
● Achievement test ● Make a diagnosis ● Nearly all tests described could be
● Aptitude test ● Design a treatment plan employed
● Ability test ● Effectiveness of treatment Some tests assist diagnosis…
ACHIEVEMENT TEST DIAGNOSIS OF MENTAL ● MILLION CLINICAL
● Measure students’ progress, DISORDERS MULTIAXIAL INVENTORY II
curricular goals, knowledge/skills ● Diagnostic and Statistical Manual - Yield information that can
from classroom instruction (DSM) which names and describes assist making diagnoses
● How much students have learned all known mental disorders Tests for general purposes…
or mastered ● Conveys deal of descriptive ● Interests, attitudes, traits, states
- Teacher-made test information about the nature of the - BECK DEPRESSION
- standardized tests behavioral deviance, deficits, INVENTORY - II
excesses in the diagnosed person - Has items tapping a
specific symptom or
attitude associated with
APTITUDE TEST INTERVIEW depression
● Good practice is to use more than
one tool of assessment to meet the
assessment objective
● Test battery

ASSESSMENT, CAREERS, AND

BUSINESS
 1. Career Choice and Transition
● Measures of interest
● Measures of ability and aptitude
● Measures of personality
MEASURE OF INTEREST
● Assuming that interest in one’s
work promotes better performance,
greater productivity, and greater
job satisfaction, both employers
and prospective employees should
have much to gain from methods
that can help individuals identify
their interests and jobs tailored to
those interests
● An interest inventory is a
self-report questionnaire that is
used to assess an individual’s
preferences and interests and how
these relate to the working world
and career goals.
● Widely used in vocational
counseling, employee selection
and classification
STRONG INTEREST INVENTORY
● One of the first measures of
interest was published in 1907 by
psychologist G. Stanley Hall. His
questionnaire was designed to
assess children’s interest in various
recreational pursuits
STRONG VOCATIONAL INTEREST ● Compare the interest patterns of
BLANK (SVIB) respondents with those employed
● The 420-item test was created by with nonprofessional occupations
Edward K. Strong Jr. in the early
1920’s. This also focuses on MEASURES OF ABILITY AND
Interest in various recreational APTITUDE
pursuits
There were 8 sections in which the items ABILITY TESTS
were divided. ● Standardized methods of assessing
1. Occupations an individual’s performance in
2. School Subjects different work related tasks or
3. Activities (Repairing a clock, situations. They measure potential
preparing a speech) rather than just academic
4. Leisure Activities performance, and are frequently
5. Types of people (old people, used by employers as indicators of
military people) how people will perform in work
6. Preferences between paired setting
activities (Dealing with think vs. APTITUDE TEST
Dealing with people) ● An assessment used to determine a
7. Pairing between four items of work candidate’s cognitive ability or
(Data things people and ideas) personality. They’re extremely
8. Self descriptive answers about common in job assessments as
oneself (Response - yes, no, ?) they can be used to predict the
● The original test was designed only likelihood of a candidate’s success
for men. in a job role
● For women the test came in 1933 A few examples of common aptitude tests:
- A test assessing an individual’s
aptitude to become a fighter pilot
- A career test evaluating a person’s
MINNESOTA VOCATIONAL capability to work as an air traffic
INTEREST INVENTORY controller
 - An aptitude test given to high
school students to determine how a
job candidate might solve different
hypothetical problems
- A test designed to assess a person’s
physical abilities needed for a
particular job such as a police
officer or firefighter
Difference
● Past: Achievement tests measure
what you’ve already learned or
accomplished
● Present: Intelligence tests measure
the innate cognitive ability you
have right now
● Future: Aptitude tests aim to
uncover where you can potentially
apply your skills in the future
MEASURING PERSONALITY
TRAITS
● Personality assessment in the
context of employment-related
research or counseling might begin
with the administration of a test
designed to measure Costa and
McCrae’s (1992b) Big Five,
Tellegen’s (1985) Big Three,
Holland’s Big Six, or some other
(Big, Little, or Medium) number of
traits or types according to a
particular conceptualization of
personality.
Most widely used personality tests in the ● This test evaluate 794 life skills,
workplace organized into four broad domains:
NEO PI-R personal living skills, home living
● Provides a quick, reliable, and skills, community living skills, and
accurate measure of the five employment skills.
domains of personality CROSS-CULTURAL ADAPTABILITY
(Neuroticism, Extraversion, INVENTORY
Openness, Agreeableness, and ● A self-ministered and self-scored
Conscientiousness) 50-item, six-point Likert scale
MBTI instrument designed to provide
● It is a self-report inventory info on the test taker’s ability to
developed by Isabel myers and adapt to other cultures
Katherine Briggs based on Carl CAREER TRANSITIONS INVENTORY
Jung’s theory of personality types ● This test is used for people
INTRGRITY TEST contemplating a career change,
● Specifically designed to predict career transition was operationally
employee theft, honesty, adherence defined as task change, position
to established procedures, and/or change or occupation change
potential for violence. Such 2. Screening, Selection, Classification,
narrowly defined personality tests and Placement
used in the context of ● Screening refers to a process of
employment-related research and evaluation based on certain
practice have been characterized as minimal standards, criteria, or
criterion-focused occupational requirements
personality scales ● Selection refers to a process
whereby each person evaluated for
a position will be either accepted
or rejected for that position
● Classification does not imply
Other Measures: acceptance or rejection but rather a
CHECKLIST OF ADAPTIVE LIVING rating, categorization with respect
SKILLS to two or more criteria
 ● Placement is a disposition, transfer,
or assignment to a group or
category that may be made on the
basis of one criterion
- Process of assigning a
specific job to each of the
selected candidates
3. Most Common Tools of Assessment
Pre-employment Stage
THE RESUME AND THE LETTER
APPLICATION
● There is no single, standard
resume; they can be “as unique as
the individuals as they represent”
(Cohen, 1994, p. 394)
● Information related to one’s work
objectives, qualifications,
education, and experience
● A letter application - lets a job
applicant demonstrate motivation,
businesslike writing skills, and his
or her unique personality
THE APPLICATION FORM
● The guiding philosophy is that
each item in the form be relevant
either to consideration for
employment or for contacting the
applicant. From the perspective of
the employer, the application form
is a useful tool for quick screening
LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION
●Unique source of detailed
information about the applicant’s
past performance, the quality of
the applicant’s relationships with
peers, and so forth.
● Applicants solicit letters from
those they believe will say only
positive things about them
● Letters of recommendation is the
variance in the observational and
writing skills of the letter writers
INTERVIEWS
● Interviews, whether individual or a
group in nature, provide an
occasion for the face-to-face
exchange of information
● The employment interview may
fall anywhere on a continuum from
highly structured to highly
unstructured
● The interviewer’s biases and
prejudices may creep into the
evaluation and influence the
outcome
● The order of interviewing might
also affect outcomes by reason of
contrast effects
PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT
● An evaluation of an individual’s
work sample for the purpose of
making some screening, selection,
classification, or placement
decision
● A video journalist applying for a
position at a new television station
may present a portfolio of video
clips, including rehearsal footage
and outtakes
● An art director for a magazine may
present a portfolio to a prospective
employer, including rough drafts
and notes about how to solve a
particular design-related problem
PERFORMANCE TESTS
● Typically part of an employee
evaluation
● The test will go through a series of
common tasks and may require
employees to complete them in a
specific order to time limit
LEADERLESS GROUP TECHNIQUE
● A leaderless group technique was
first used in a military and
industrial setting. This type of
technique organizes individuals
into groups that are tasked to
perform an assignment
● These individuals are observed if
they have business leadership
abilities, communication skills, if
they’re cooperative, if they take
initiative, and other related
variables. During a task, no one is
 identified as the leader so that the
group members will cooperate
with one another and finish a task
as a group
IN-BASKET TECHNIQUE
● This type of technique challenges a
person’s leadership skills by doing
a task that requires dealing with
mail, memos, announcements, and
other notices and directives. They
are tasked to handle this however
they want, and these individuals
are assessed through a posttest
interviews and examinations
● The assessment tells whether or
not they are capable of organizing
and planning, problem solving,
decision making, creativity,
leadership, and written
communication skills
PHYSICAL TEST
● May be defined as measurement
that entails evaluation of one’s
somatic health and intactness, and
observable sensory and motor
abilities
DRUG TEST
● An evaluation undertaken to
determine the presence, if any, of
alcohol, or other psychotropic
substances
COGNITIVE ABILITY,
PRODUCTIVITY, AND
MOTIVATION, MEASURES
● Beyond their use in
pre-employment counseling and in
the screening, selection,
classification, and placement of
personnel, tools of assessment are
used to accomplish various goals
in the workplace
● Assessment tests are specially
developed to measure the
capabilities and gather significant
information about a candidate’s
personality, skills, and ability.
Most commonly, these tests help
identify how well a candidate is
likely to perform on the job
BENEFITS OF ASSESSMENT TESTS
● Streamlined hiring process save
time and get better results
● Increased employee satisfaction
and retention rate
● Reduction in the negative cost
which is related to a wrong hire
● Higher productivity of the hires
● A good fit the company’s culture
● Enhanced equitability, objectivity
and legal defensibility of a
company’s recruitment process