Agricultural Systems 215 (2024) 103854

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Agricultural Systems
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/agsy

Achieving sustainable development through agriculture-forestry-livestock

nexus in Bangladesh: Synergies and trade-offs
Pritha Datta a, *, Bhagirath Behera b, Jagadish Timsina c, e, Dil Bahadur Rahut d
a
TERI School of Advanced Studies, New Delhi, India
b
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India
c
Institute for Study and Development Worldwide, Sydney, Australia
d
Asian Development Bank Institute, Japan
e
Global Evergreening Alliance, Melbourne, Australia

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Integrating agriculture-forestry-livestock
(AFL) systems for SDGs lacks clarity in
developing countries.
• The study explores AFL synergies, trade-
offs in Bangladesh for SDGs and suggests
solutions.
• AFL integration offers SDG synergies,
but challenges like limited resources and
gender inequities arise.
• Strategies like specialized credit, co­
operatives, land resolution, etc. could
address challenges.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: Dr. Emma Stephens CONTEXT: In the pursuit of achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030, integrating
Guest Editor: Jagadish Timsina agriculture-forestry-livestock (AFL) systems has emerged as a potential tool in developing countries. Yet, the
extent of synergies and trade-offs associated with each SDG and viable strategies to address these trade-offs and
Keywords: leverage the synergies lack clarity.
Agroforestry
OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to investigate the synergies and trade-offs associated with integrating
SDGs
AFL practices in Bangladesh toward achieving the 17 SDGs and suggest appropriate solutions to address the
Stakeholder
Strategies trade-offs.
Bangladesh METHODS: This study employs an online survey based on the Delphi principles, ensuring unbiased opinions from
a diverse set of experts with relevant expertise in the AFL nexus. The first survey round gathers insights on
potential synergies and trade-offs, and the second round focuses on effective management strategies to address
the challenges.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Findings reveal that AFL integration holds potential for synergies across SDGs,
especially for poverty eradication, zero hunger, life on land, and climate action. However, trade-offs develop due
to a lack of technical expertise and managerial knowledge, limited access to financial resources, fragmented land

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: dattapritha3@gmail.com (P. Datta), bhagirath@hss.iitkgp.ac.in (B. Behera), drahut@adbi.org (D.B. Rahut).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2024.103854
Received 26 August 2023; Received in revised form 12 December 2023; Accepted 3 January 2024
Available online 12 January 2024
0308-521X/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
P. Datta et al. Agricultural Systems 215 (2024) 103854

ownership, insufficient market opportunities, existing gender inequities, child labor practices, and an over­
reliance on wood as a fuel source in Bangladesh. To address these challenges, this study recommends compre­
hensive strategies such as creating specialized agricultural credit facilities, introducing insurance schemes,
promoting cooperative associations, resolving land ownership issues, improving market linkages, addressing
child labor, promoting gender equality, and advocating for clean energy alternatives like biogas. These strategies
are linked with several national agendas of Bangladesh and aim to minimize trade-offs and maximize the syn­
ergies of AFL integration for sustainable development.
SIGNIFICANCE: This research contributes to the global discourse on sustainable development by shedding light
on the potential of AFL systems in Bangladesh and offers insights for policymakers and stakeholders. The findings
also provide guidance for other developing countries facing similar challenges while pursuing the SDGs.

1. Introduction vulnerability of conventional agriculture to climate change undermines

As countries worldwide strive to balance economic growth, envi­
ronmental conservation, and social equity, the significance of sustain­
able development has surged enormously (Kakar et al., 2021). In this
context, the United Nations made a significant contribution to
advancing sustainable development by introducing the 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 (United Nations, 2015). Building
upon the earlier Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the SDGs
encompass a wide range of subjects, including clean energy, clean water
and sanitation, climate action, and biodiversity conservation, among
others, to accomplish them by 2030 (Bexell and Jönsson, 2017).
One area that has emerged as a focal point for achieving these goals is
land use, mainly concerning the agricultural practices for food produc­
tion (Fader et al., 2018; van Noordwijk et al., 2018). However, con­
ventional agrarian practices face significant challenges aligning with the
SDGs (Fig. 1). For instance, issues like soil degradation, water pollution,
and biodiversity loss associated with agrochemical use hinder progress
toward SDG 15 (Life on Land) and SDG 14 (Life Below Water) (Timsina,
2018). Greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation, fossil fuel use, and
livestock production obstruct advancements in SDG 13 (Climate Action)
(Aryal et al., 2020). Unsustainable resource consumption, such as
excessive water use and reliance on fossil fuels, creates barriers to SDG 6
(Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy)
(Elahi et al., 2022). Limited dietary diversity and monocropping in
conventional practices hinder progress toward SDG 2 (Zero Hunger)
(Wijerathna-Yapa and Pathirana, 2022). Social inequalities propagated
by large-scale farming systems challenge SDG 1 (No Poverty) and SDG
10 (Reduced Inequalities) (Ceddia, 2019). Furthermore, the
resilience and the achievement of SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption
and Production) (Iizumi et al., 2018). Consequently, employing farming
practices that require minimal financial costs and external inputs while
simultaneously addressing the SDG goals is critical.
In pursuit of the SDGs, leveraging integrated agricultural practices
like Agriculture-Forestry-Livestock (AFL) systems can offer a holistic
pathway, optimizing resources, ensuring resilience, and fostering in­
clusive growth through the interconnectedness between these three
sectors (Lal, 2020; Ruba and Talucder, 2023). For instance, integrating
livestock production with crops and trees can enhance nutrient cycling,
reduce waste generation, and provide multiple products for diversified
income and diet while maintaining the principles of a circular economy
(Bateki et al., 2019). In addition, sustainable management of forests and
landscapes can provide critical habitats for biodiversity while enhancing
soil and water quality and carbon sequestration (Mbow et al., 2014).
However, integrating AFL systems may cause trade-offs such as
competition for resources, reduced yield from understory crops, adverse
effects on biodiversity, and greenhouse gas emissions, posing challenges
toward achieving the SDGs (Herrero et al., 2009; Soussana and Lemaire,
2014).
1.1. The state of agriculture, forestry, and livestock sectors and the
achievement of various sustainable development goals in Bangladesh
Considering the growing population, limited land resources, and the
impact of climate change on agriculture (Fahim and Arefin, 2023),
Bangladesh presents an interesting case for examining the synergies and
trade-offs involved in the AFL systems in achieving the SDGs. These

Fig. 1. Some of the key challenges that conventional agrarian practices face in aligning with the Sustainable Development Goals.

2
P. Datta et al.
three sectors play a crucial role in the economy of Bangladesh by
employing most of the rural workforce, supporting the livelihoods of
nearly 87% of the rural in Bangladesh (Ruba and Talucder, 2023).
However, the contribution towards toward GDP has remained low and is
currently, declining (Fig. 2), while the contribution of the service sector
has remained almost the same, and the industrial sector is growing
(Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2023).
Several SDGs, including poverty eradication (SDG 1), zero hunger
(SDG 2), gender equality (SDG 5), affordable and clean energy (SDG 7),
decent work and economic growth (SDG 8), industry, innovation, and
infrastructure (SDG 9), and reduced inequalities (SDG 10) face sub­
stantial challenges in Bangladesh (Nasrullah, 2021; Sachs et al., 2022).
Additionally, challenges exist for the SDGs relating to life on land (SDG
15), clean water and sanitation (SDG 6), and good health and well-being
(SDG 3) (Sachs et al., 2022) (Fig. 3).
The conventional agricultural practices can worsen the situation
further, for instance, rice and cattle farming contributes to around 91%
of agricultural emissions (Sapkota et al., 2021), while diesel consump­
tion in agriculture contributes to increased greenhouse gas emissions,
posing challenges to SDG 13 (Climate Action) in Bangladesh (Raihan
et al., 2023). Besides, unsustainable agricultural practices have
degraded groundwater quality in Bangladesh; though current nitrate
levels in groundwater remain within permissible limits, extensive use of
nitrogen-based chemical fertilizers may elevate these levels in the
future, impacting SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) (Salman et al.,
2018). Studies further reveal that due to a lack of knowledge, most
Bangladeshi farmers excessively and inefficiently use pesticides, result­
ing in soil degradation and pesticide residues in food items, posing a
severe threat to public health and affecting SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and 3
(Good Health and Well-being) (Rahman et al., 2015; Hasan et al., 2019).
Besides, agricultural expansion in Bangladesh has led to significant
deforestation, disrupting wildlife habitats and biodiversity, thus
affecting SDG 15 (Life on Land) (Reddy et al., 2016a, 2016b).
In this context, the need to integrate AFL to achieve SDGs in
Bangladesh is well-recognized, since it has demonstrated significant
potential in enhancing food security, uplifting livelihoods, and
conserving environmental resources (Ruba and Talucder, 2023). It is
further important to note that although Bangladeshi farmers commonly
integrate agriculture, forestry, and livestock, the synergistic benefits in
achieving SDGs are yet to be fully realized due to several factors,
including but not limited to the smaller scale of integration based on
indigenous knowledge, inadequate technical support and training,
financial constraints and so on (Jahan et al., 2022; Ruba and Talucder,
2023). However, the extent of synergies and trade-offs associated with
each SDG and the potential management options to address these
trade-offs and leverage the synergies remains unclear.
Therefore, this study aims to analyze (i) the level of synergies and
trade-offs in the AFL nexus in Bangladesh, categorizing them as low,
moderate, or high, with a specific focus on achieving the various SDGs;
and (ii) to identify effective management strategies to address the trade-
offs within the AFL nexus and promote sustainable development in line
with the SDGs. The findings of this study could contribute to the ongoing
global discourse on sustainable development, highlighting the impor­
tance of the AFL nexus in realizing SDGs in Bangladesh and other
countries. By understanding the interdependencies and interlinkages
between these three sectors, policymakers and other stakeholders can
make informed decisions that promote economic growth, environmental
conservation, and social equity. Ultimately, this study could facilitate
the transition toward a more sustainable and resilient future, where
Bangladesh's AFL nexus could catalyze sustainable development.
Moreover, the study could serve as a reference for other developing
countries, in particular in Asia, facing similar challenges.
2. Methodology
To achieve the study objectives, we employed an online survey
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Agricultural Systems 215 (2024) 103854
comprising two rounds inspired by the Delphi principles, with a focus on
the anonymity of participating experts (Datta et al., 2023). This
approach aimed to elicit unbiased opinions and mitigate common lim­
itations associated with group-based discussions, such as groupthink,
the halo effect, egocentrism, and dominance (Orr, 2021). Unlike the
traditional Delphi method, which typically prioritizes seeking consensus
on a particular topic, this study adopted a scoping-like survey approach.
In this approach, the second round of the survey was built upon the
responses gathered in the first round, facilitating the collection of reli­
able and relatively agreed-upon opinions from the participating experts.
By following this methodology, we sought to avoid certain drawbacks
associated with conventional Delphi studies, such as a potential high
drop-out rate in subsequent survey cycles, leading to a reduced sample
population for evaluation (Day and Bobeva, 2005). The anonymous
nature of the survey ensured that participants could freely express their
views without unnecessary influence, providing unbiased data collec­
tion. The methodology details are elaborated on in the subsequent sec­
tion and presented in Fig. 4.
2.1. Selection of participants for the online survey
The online survey was conducted to gather insights from experts
with relevant expertise in the AFL nexus in Bangladesh. Identifying
potential participants began with a systematic search for authors of
scientific literature related to the AFL nexus or agroforestry in
Bangladesh. The search was carried out on Google Scholar, and the
authors of the papers found on the first 25 pages of the results were
collated.
Additionally, participants were searched through the sustainable
agricultural practice networks, including well-known organizations, e.
g., the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research
(CGIAR), International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIM­
MYT), International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT), Center for International Forestry Research-World Agrofor­
estry (CIFOR-ICRAF), and International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
Involving experts from these networks provided diverse perspectives on
the AFL nexus in Bangladesh. Furthermore, potential participants from
the Ministry of Agriculture in Bangladesh and non-governmental orga­
nizations (NGOs) promoting sustainable farming practices were also
invited to participate in the survey, ensuring that policy perspectives
and on-the-ground experiences were taken into account.
In total, 82 experts were invited to participate in the first survey
round. The selected participants represented a mix of scientists, insti­
tutional and private researchers, policymakers, and scientifically trained
officials, all with expertise relevant to the AFL nexus. In the first round,
32 respondents provided their input and answered the survey, repre­
senting various backgrounds, including 13 scientists, three policy­
makers, 11 researchers, three scientifically trained officials, and 2 NGO
workers. For the second round, 21 respondents completed the survey,
with representation from 8 scientists, two policymakers, eight re­
searchers, two scientifically trained officials, and one NGO worker. By
engaging various experts and professionals with varied backgrounds and
expertise, the study ensured a comprehensive analysis of the AFL nexus
in Bangladesh and the development of effective management strategies
for minimizing the trade-offs. The participation of policymakers and
scientifically trained officials also increased the potential for the survey
findings to influence policy and decision-making processes in Bangla­
desh's sustainable agricultural practices.
2.2. Questionnaire design and conducting the online survey
The first phase of the online survey consisted of a questionnaire
containing a mix of closed and open-ended questions. It commenced by
evaluating the potential impact of the AFL integration on accomplishing
the SDGs in Bangladesh. Participants were requested to express their
level of agreement using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from “Strongly
P. Datta et al. Agricultural Systems 215 (2024) 103854

Fig. 2. Contribution of the agricultural sector to GDP in Bangladesh (Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (https://bbs.gov.bd/) *Provisional).

Fig. 3. The status of SDGs in Bangladesh (Source: Sustainable Development Report, https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/explorer).

disagree” to “Strongly agree” (1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 =
Neutral; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly agree). Following this, the question­
naire gathered insights on the degree of synergies and trade-offs in
achieving the 17 SDGs through the AFL nexus in Bangladesh. Partici­
pants were asked to identify which specific goals exhibited high, mod­
erate, and low synergies and trade-offs. Additionally, they were given
the scope to provide explanations and justifications for their opinions
through open-ended questions. To aid participants, we also included
notes on how synergies1 and trade-offs2 were conceptualized in this
study.
Following the first round, we obtained responses from 32 experts.
These responses were then scrutinized to identify the SDGs exhibiting
1 the questionnaire were then analyzed to identify the most appropriate
Synergies refer to situations where achieving one goal or objective can
contribute to the achievement of another goal or objective.
2
Trade-offs refer to situations where achieving one goal or objective requires
sacrificing or compromising another goal or objective.
moderate to high levels of synergies and trade-offs. SDGs with lower
levels of synergies and trade-offs were excluded from further analysis.
Subsequently, we analyzed the participants' explanations regarding the
trade-offs using inductive coding and thematic analysis. This process led
to the identification of 7 root causes that have the potential to impede
the achievement of synergies. These root causes were identified as fol­
lows: lack of technical expertise among Bangladeshi farmers, limited
access to financial resources, fragmented land ownership and tenure,
inadequate market opportunities and value chain systems, the issue of
child labor, gender inequalities, and heavy reliance on fuel wood as the
primary energy source in rural areas. To address these hindrances and
achieve synergistic benefits, we developed a questionnaire to gather
expert opinions. After conducting a pre-test of the questionnaire, it was
distributed to the participants, resulting in 21 responses. The data from
management options, and the findings were then incorporated into this
study.

4
P. Datta et al. Agricultural Systems 215 (2024) 103854

Fig. 4. Methodological flowchart of the study.

3. Results
A majority of the participants (50% strongly agreed and 40.6%
agreed, rests were neutral) in the online survey supported the notion
that integrating AFL systems have substantial potential to contribute to
the achievement of SDGs in Bangladesh. The experts' opinions on
potential synergies and trade-offs were consolidated after the initial
survey round, and the overall findings are presented in Fig. 5 and
elaborated upon in the subsequent section. Also, the management stra­
tegies to address these trade-offs are discussed.

5
P. Datta et al.
Fig. 5. Levels of synergies and trade-offs through the integration of Agriculture-Livestock-Forestry systems in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals
in Bangladesh.
3.1. Identifying synergies: Agriculture-forestry-livestock integration for
SDGs
The results of the first round of the survey demonstrate that the
integration of AFL systems holds the potential for fostering synergies
across several SDGs. SDG 1 (No Poverty) benefits from AFL systems as
they provide diversified income sources through crops, livestock, and
tree products, contributing to poverty reduction. Furthermore, AFL
6
Agricultural Systems 215 (2024) 103854
integration enhances farming system resilience, reducing vulnerability
to economic shocks and offering alternative income streams. The
improved financial condition of the household might also improve the
educational attainment, thereby supporting SDG 4 (Quality Education).
Similarly, SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) is positively impacted by AFL practices
that contribute to food security by producing diverse crops and livestock
products, ensuring a more nutritious diet. Trees integrated into agri­
cultural landscapes further enhance soil fertility, microclimate, and
P. Datta et al.
water retention, bolstering crop productivity and livestock forage
availability, which aligns with SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation).
Additionally, SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) is advanced as AFL
systems provide a variety of nutritious foods, supporting improved
health outcomes while creating a healthier and more comfortable
environment for farmers and livestock by integrating trees.
SDG 5 (Gender Equality) is also influenced by AFL integration, as it
creates income-generating opportunities for women, empowering them
economically. The AFL systems can also contribute to renewable energy
production by cultivating energy crops or generating biomass for bio­
energy, which are essential for SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy).
SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) is further supported by AFL
systems, which create employment opportunities through combined
livestock rearing, crop production, and agroforestry activities. More­
over, integrating trees in agricultural landscapes contributes to SDG 9
(Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure) by providing natural infra­
structure elements like windbreaks or living fences, enhancing soil
conservation and microclimate regulation. AFL practices could foster
inclusive development, reducing inequalities (SDG 10) by offering eco­
nomic opportunities to small-scale farmers, pastoralists, women, and
marginalized communities.
Regarding environmental impact, AFL systems play a crucial role in
climate change mitigation (SDG 13) by sequestering carbon through tree
growth and reducing GHG emissions through sustainable livestock and
crop management practices. They also aid in preserving marine re­
sources (SDG 14: Life Below Water) by reducing the soil erosion and
pollution of water bodies through appropriate land management prac­
tices. Additionally, AFL integration contributes to SDG 15 (Life on Land)
by promoting land and biodiversity conservation, providing habitats for
diverse plant and animal species while improving soil health and
ecosystem resilience.
Addressing the social goals, AFL systems can contribute to SDG 11
(Sustainable Cities and Communities) by facilitating urban gardening
and green spaces creation in growing cities and to SDG 16 (Peace, Jus­
tice, and Strong Institutions) by fostering social cohesion and sustain­
able rural development through offering economic opportunities and
poverty reduction. Collaborative efforts (SDG 17: Partnerships for the
Goals) among stakeholders, including farmers, researchers, policy­
makers, and NGOs, are critical for promoting and scaling up AFL systems
to ensure their broader positive impact on achieving the SDGs.
3.2. Understanding the complexity of trade-offs of the agriculture-
forestry-livestock systems
Integrating AFL systems to achieve various SDGs could also come
with trade-offs. In pursuing SDG 1 (No Poverty), establishing and
managing AFL systems may pose challenges for resource-limited farmers
and communities due to upfront investments and the need for technical
knowledge. Similarly, while aiming for SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), trees in
AFL systems can limit sunlight availability for some crops, requiring
careful crop selection or specific management practices, without which
crop yields might decrease. Furthermore, subsistence farmers may pri­
oritize selling nutritious fruits and vegetables for economic gain,
potentially undermining their household nutritional needs. SDG 3 (Good
Health and Well-being) can be impacted by zoonotic disease risks
associated with livestock management, necessitating proper hygiene
and animal health care practices. Besides, engaging women in AFL ac­
tivities, as observed in SDG 5 (Gender Equality), may affect their well-
being due to several gender-specific roles and responsibilities.
In the pursuit of SDG 4 (Quality Education), the time and labor de­
mands of AFL management might reduce school-going children's
attendance for formal education during the peak farming periods.
Additionally, improved household income from AFL systems might not
necessarily translate to better education if other priorities, since enter­
tainment and marriage expenses, consume a significant portion of the
income in the developing countries. Trade-offs in SDG 6 (Clean Water
7
Agricultural Systems 215 (2024) 103854
and Sanitation) can arise when unregulated livestock access to water
bodies leads to contamination without proper management of waste and
access. Additionally, improved biomass from AFL systems may reduce
incentives for households to adopt clean energy (SDG 7: Affordable and
Clean Energy).
Efforts to achieve SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth)
through AFL systems might increase drudgery for women and children
due to increased labor demands. Similarly, SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation,
and Infrastructure) might face labor shortages if workforce availability
is redirected toward AFL practices. SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) might
require addressing power dynamics and unequal resource access to
ensure equitable distribution of benefits and opportunities among
different social groups within AFL systems. Striving for SDG 11 (Sus­
tainable Cities and Communities) involves managing land-use conflicts
as agricultural needs often compete with urbanization and infrastructure
demands. SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) may
necessitate careful management of AFL systems to minimize environ­
mental impacts, such as agrochemicals or livestock waste disposal. The
pursuit of SDG 13 (Climate Action) can be affected by livestock-related
GHG emissions, contributing to climate change if not appropriately
managed.
In AFL systems, trade-offs with SDG 14 (Life Below Water) and SDG
15 (Life on Land) could emerge due to unregulated livestock access and
competition with tree growth or resource utilization. Achieving SDG 16
(Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions) may require effective conflict
resolution mechanisms and well-functioning institutions to address
competing land-use interests. Finally, for SDG 17 (Partnerships for the
Goals), balancing diverse perspectives and power dynamics among
stakeholders can be challenging but necessary to establish effective
partnerships and ensure equitable distribution of benefits in AFL
initiatives.
3.3. Which sustainable development goals will likely exhibit higher
synergies and trade-offs from integrating agriculture-forestry-livestock
systems?
While the participants indicated that integrating AFL systems could
have both the synergies and trade-offs related to all the SDGs, further
analysis suggests that SDGs 1, 2, 13, and 15 hold high levels of synergies
and trade-offs (Fig. 5). Whereas SDGs 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, and 12 exhibit
moderate-level synergies and trade-offs, the rest (SDGs 9, 11, 14, 16, 17)
have low levels of synergies and trade-offs. Interestingly, the SDGs
showing a high level of synergies also show high trade-offs from the
integration of AFL systems. This finding underscores the complexities
involved in achieving sustainable development across multiple goals.
While there are opportunities for positive impacts, it is essential to
approach the practice cautiously and adopt appropriate strategies to
minimize trade-offs and optimize positive outcomes for sustainable
development.
3.4. How could the trade-offs be minimized to gain synergistic benefits
from agriculture-forestry-livestock systems for achieving sustainable
development goals in Bangladesh?
The pursuit of SDGs through integrated AFL systems can face multi-
faceted challenges that require strategic solutions. One of the significant
impediments is the lack of technical expertise among Bangladeshi
farmers. To address this, participants recommend a multi-pronged
approach involving organizing training programs, workshops, and
field demonstrations (Fig. 6). Furthermore, enhancing farmers' access to
information through digital platforms, mobile apps, and extension ser­
vices can empower them with updated knowledge. Research and
development initiatives also generate context-specific insights, innova­
tive technologies, and best practices tailored to sustainable AFL systems
in Bangladesh.
Another critical obstacle is the limited access to the financial
P. Datta et al.
Fig. 6. Root causes of the trade-offs and proposed strategies suggested by the participants.
resources of Bangladeshi farmers required for the AFL system estab­
lishment. Proposed strategies involve the creation of specialized agri­
cultural credit facilities and expanding existing mechanisms to offer
affordable loans. Additionally, introducing agriculture insurance
schemes can safeguard farmers from potential losses due to different
natural disasters, pests, diseases, or market fluctuations. Encouraging
the formation of farmer cooperatives and associations provides a col­
lective resource pool, enabling improved access to financial support.
Besides, the fragmented land ownership and tenure issues can disrupt
the cohesion of the integrated AFL systems. The suggested solutions
include promoting land pooling arrangements to encourage multiple
landowners to manage their lands collaboratively, thus acquiring col­
lective benefits. Education plays a vital role in this process, with
awareness campaigns and outreach programs educating farmers about
the advantages of AFL systems and the importance of resolving land
ownership and tenure issues. enhancing land tenure security by
improving land documentation, registration, and titling systems could
also contribute to a stable foundation for these integrated systems.
Inadequate market opportunities and inefficient value chain systems
often pose significant challenges in Bangladesh. Direct market linkages
between farmers and various stakeholders, including retailers, pro­
cessors, exporters, and wholesalers, should be facilitated to address this.
Strengthening farmer cooperatives or producer organizations can
collectively market their AFL products, ensuring a stronger negotiating
position. Moreover, improving rural connectivity and storage facilities
can enhance the efficient distribution and storage of products from the
farms to the markets. Besides, child labor remains an ethical concern and
a barrier to holistic development in Bangladesh. Addressing this issue
requires establishing and supporting schools in rural areas, coupled with
scholarships and incentives, to encourage children's enrolment and
attendance. Also, reducing the dependency on manual labor by pro­
moting the use of appropriate farm machinery, tools, and technology is
essential. Ensuring transparency and accountability in eradicating child
labor practices can also involve establishing clear criteria and standards
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Agricultural Systems 215 (2024) 103854
for the certification process of AFL products.
Gender inequalities within the agricultural sector can hinder the
progress of SDGs through AFL integration. Therefore, it is crucial to
encourage women's active involvement in decision-making processes
through their inclusion in cooperatives, farmers' groups, and community
organizations. Moreover, organizing awareness campaigns and com­
munity dialogues are pivotal in promoting gender equality, challenging
stereotypes, and advocating equitable labor-sharing between genders in
Bangladesh. Supporting women's participation in value chain develop­
ment and market-oriented activities could further empower them.
Lastly, the heavy reliance on fuel wood presents environmental and
health risks in Bangladesh. Creating awareness about clean energy al­
ternatives, with their associated benefits, such as reduced GHG emis­
sions and improved indoor air quality, is vital. Providing technical
assistance and training for installing, operating, and maintaining biogas
plants could offer a sustainable energy solution in this regard. Encour­
aging community-based biogas projects could allow multiple house­
holds to invest collectively and benefit from a centralized biogas plant,
contributing to reduced reliance on fuel wood.
4. Discussion
In this study, we assert that integrating AFL systems can generate
synergistic outcomes for several SDGs, particularly SDGs 1, 2, 13, and
14, which constitute significant challenges for Bangladesh. The Sus­
tainable Development Report (2023) underscores that progress is being
moderately achieved in SDGs 1 and 2, albeit considerable challenges
persist. On the other hand, SDG 15 is grappling with notable impedi­
ments, resulting in a slowing down of progress, while SDG 13 remains
stagnant in its advancement (Sachs et al., 2022). Furthermore, the
achievement of several SDGs, viz. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10 – encounter
several challenges in Bangladesh, except for SDG 12 (Sachs et al., 2022).
These goals exhibit a moderate level of synergies facilitated by incor­
porating AFL systems. Given this backdrop, the robust support from our
P. Datta et al.
study's participants for the potential of AFL integration to contribute to
the attainment of multiple SDGs mirrors the views expressed in previous
research on agroforestry in Bangladesh (Rahman et al., 2012; Baul et al.,
2021; Akter et al., 2022; Islam et al., 2022; Baul et al., 2022; Hemel
et al., 2022). Additionally, a considerable number of the identified
trade-offs have been extensively documented in the context of
Bangladesh, underscoring the imperative need for comprehensive and
context-specific strategies to effectively address them (Hanif et al., 2018;
Jahan et al., 2022; Rahman et al., 2012).
While the past studies in Bangladesh (as mentioned above) pre­
dominantly center on the tree component of the agroforestry and
homesteads, our investigation casts a light on the integration and ben­
efits spanning all three components – crops, trees, and livestock – which
have not received extensive attention due to an excessive emphasis on
the tree component due the benefit of carbon sequestration in context of
climate change mitigation. Besides, potential obstacles to integrating
AFL systems, as identified in our study, could impede the progress of
several SDGs. While these impediments might vary across countries and
agroforestry systems, our analysis highlights common challenges,
encompassing the scarcity of technical expertise among farmers, con­
strained access to financial resources, fragmented land ownership and
tenure, inadequate market opportunities, bottlenecks within the value
chain, concerns about child labor, gender inequalities, and heavy reli­
ance on fuelwood as the primary rural energy source, all of which are
prevalent in numerous developing nations (Mwase et al., 2015; Beyene
et al., 2019; Dhakal et al., 2022; Datta and Behera, 2023; Ahmad et al.,
2023). As a result, the strategies formulated in our study could serve as
valuable guidelines for other developing nations facing similar issues.
Integrating trees into arable or livestock systems often requires new
skills, techniques, or equipment (Kiyani et al., 2017). However, Ban­
gladeshi farmers often face obstacles due to their limited education,
resistance to adopting suitable management practices, and a lack of
expert guidance (Afrad et al., 2019; Jahan et al., 2022). To tackle this
issue, the participants suggested a multi-faceted strategy that aligns with
the agricultural extension models commonly employed in Bangladesh.
Initiatives such as arranging training sessions, workshops, and on-field
demonstrations align with the country's established tradition of partic­
ipatory extension approaches to disseminate knowledge and enhance
farmers' capabilities (Biswas et al., 2021). Improving access to infor­
mation through digital platforms, mobile apps, and extension services
reflects the role of technology in overcoming information barriers and
empowering farmers. Bangladesh has embraced digital agricultural
extension services to bridge the knowledge gap and provide timely in­
formation to farmers (Khan Tithi et al., 2021). Besides, the proposed
research and development endeavors are particularly significant in
Bangladesh, given the imperative for innovative and adaptable agri­
cultural approaches due to the nation's susceptibility to climate change,
with localized research having the potential to yield insights and tech­
nologies tailored to Bangladesh's distinctive agro-ecological conditions
and resource limitations (Jahan et al., 2022).
The challenge of limited financial resources, particularly for small­
holder farmers, is a common scenario in Bangladesh (Rahman et al.,
2020). The provision of specialized agricultural credit facilities and
affordable loans is critical in Bangladesh because studies show that
credit-constrained farmers are less technically efficient than credit-non-
constrained farmers; additionally, credit provision increases farm pro­
duction and financial growth, both of which are critical for achieving
many of the SDGs (Islam, 2020). Besides, introducing agriculture in­
surance schemes has proven effective in mitigating farmers' risks due to
climate variability (Islam et al., 2021). However, the crop insurance
concept is relatively new to Bangladesh; it has succeeded in many cases
(Al-Maruf et al., 2021; Islam et al., 2021). The formation of farmer co­
operatives and associations, alongside fragmented land ownership and
tenure solutions, reflects the potential of collective action to address
resource constraints and enhance land-use efficiency. Bangladesh has a
history of successful farmer organizations contributing to improved
9
Agricultural Systems 215 (2024) 103854
access to resources and markets (Rahman and Akter, 2020).
Addressing inadequate market opportunities and inefficient value
chains is a pressing concern in the Bangladeshi agricultural sector
(Islam, 2022). In Bangladesh, similar to numerous other developing
nations, agroforestry product prices are inadequate for the farmers due
to the presence of multiple intermediaries within the value chain (Islam
et al., 2014; Gessesse et al., 2019; Atreya et al., 2021). The emphasis on
direct market linkages, cooperative marketing, and improved rural
connectivity is highly required to enhance agrarian market access
(Mankhin et al., 2023). Besides, child labor remains a socioeconomic
challenge in Bangladesh, particularly in the agricultural sector. Inte­
grating AFL systems could exacerbate the burden on children, leading to
higher drop-out rates from school. This issue is particularly pronounced
among girls, as traditional farm responsibilities often fall on them,
resulting in potential gender disparities, as highlighted in a study by
Saqib (2015). The suggested approach of establishing schools in rural
communities, coupled with scholarships and incentives, shows a
promising approach to the national goal of achieving quality and equity
in Universal Primary Education in Bangladesh.
Furthermore, persistent gender inequalities within Bangladesh's
agricultural sector underscore the importance of empowering women,
aiming to alleviate gender disparities and the excessive burden placed
on women due to various farm-related duties and household re­
sponsibilities (Rahman et al., 2010). Research indicates that narrowing
gender gaps within Bangladeshi households correlates with heightened
technical efficiency (Seymour, 2017). Similarly, studies have illustrated
that involving women in value chains constitutes a pivotal approach to
enhancing their empowerment within agriculture, leading to better
agricultural output and enhanced livelihoods (Quisumbing et al., 2015).
Moreover, addressing the significant dependence on fuel wood remains
crucial to mitigating environmental and indoor health complexities in
Bangladesh (Khan et al., 2017). The reliance on fuel wood carries
environmental ramifications, and the advocacy for cleaner energy al­
ternatives aligns with Bangladesh's focus on renewable energy sources to
curb ecological degradation (Uddin et al., 2019). Furthermore, the
concept of community-based biogas initiatives aligns with the principles
of collective action and shared responsibility, not only advancing sus­
tainable energy practices but also fostering social unity and cooperation
within the communities (Chaichana et al., 2017).
5. Conclusion
The findings from this study shed light on the potential synergies and
trade-offs of integrating AFL systems to advance the SDGs in
Bangladesh. The substantial support among participants for the AFL
integration underscores its viability as a multi-dimensional approach to
address complex developmental issues. Examining synergies and trade-
offs across various SDGs highlights the intricate interplay between so­
cioeconomic, environmental, and institutional factors. While high levels
of synergies are evident in SDGs 1, 2, 13, and 14, trade-offs are equally
prevalent and demand careful management to avoid unintended con­
sequences. In this context, the strategies proposed in this study for
minimizing trade-offs and harnessing synergistic benefits offer a
comprehensive framework for action.
The study underscores the importance of context-specific approaches
tailored to developing countries' unique challenges and opportunities.
By embracing participatory extension methods, digital technology, and
localized research, nations can empower their farmers with the knowl­
edge and tools needed to navigate the complexities of AFL integration.
Addressing financial limitations through credit mechanisms and insur­
ance schemes, coupled with cooperative models, has the potential to
unlock opportunities and mitigate disparities. Forming farmer co­
operatives and collaborative land management strategies also presents
opportunities to enhance resource access and land-use efficiency. In the
context of market challenges and inefficient value chains, the study
emphasizes the importance of direct market linkages, cooperative
P. Datta et al.
marketing, and improved rural connectivity. Besides, child labor and
gender disparities remain focal points in Bangladesh, necessitating
educational initiatives and gender-inclusive approaches to empower
women and reduce child labor. Furthermore, the study advocates for
reducing fuel wood reliance through clean energy alternatives and
community-based biogas projects, aligning with the environmental
sustainability goals.
The strategies proposed in this study are consistent with many of
Bangladesh's national priorities (e.g., sustainable agricultural produc­
tion system, rural poverty alleviation, gender equality and women
empowerment, universal primary education, and renewable energy
generation) and could be integrated into the existing programs. Besides,
the path to realizing the potential of AFL systems for achieving SDGs is
intricate, requiring collaboration among diverse stakeholders, adaptive
strategies, and commitment to inclusivity and equity.
The insights from the study on AFL systems and sustainable devel­
opment in Bangladesh hold valuable lessons for other developing
countries aiming to address similar challenges. Recognizing the shared
barriers faced by multiple developing nations, such as limited technical
expertise, financial resources, and market access, the strategies pro­
posed in this study offer a blueprint for action. By adopting and imple­
menting the strategies outlined in the study, nations can effectively
address poverty, hunger, climate change, and environmental degrada­
tion while empowering their communities and achieving meaningful
progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals.
While this study shed light on the synergies and trade-offs within the
AFL systems, its scope was restricted to correlating findings with Ban­
gladeshi farmers due to time and resource limitations. Consequently,
future investigations should delve deeper into micro-level empirical
studies building upon the findings of our study. This will aid in identi­
fying and incorporating further pertinent trade-offs and policy alterna­
tives to harness synergistic advantages in pursuit of achieving the
Sustainable Development Goals.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Pritha Datta: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft. Bhagirath
Behera: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Supervision,
Writing – review & editing. Jagadish Timsina: Conceptualization,
Investigation, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Dil Bahadur
Rahut: Conceptualization, Investigation, Supervision, Writing – review
& editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The authors extend heartfelt gratitude for the opportunity to present
this study at the Asian Development Bank Institute (ABDI) Conference
on "The Agriculture-Livestock-Forestry Nexus in Asia: Contributions and
Potential for Improving Farmers’ Livelihoods, Soil Health, and Climate
Change Adaptation and Mitigation." They deeply appreciate the
invaluable input from the conference discussant, participants, and
anonymous reviewers, whose contributions significantly improved the
paper’s quality. Special thanks go to ADBI and the guest editors for
initiating the special issue. The authors are also profoundly thankful to
all those who participated in the online survey, sharing their valuable
knowledge and enriching the research outcome.
10
Agricultural Systems 215 (2024) 103854
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