ASSUMPTION ABOUT PSYCHOLOGICAL
TESTING AND ASSESSMENT
ASSUMPTION 1: PSYCHOLOGICAL
TRAITS AND STATES EXIST
• You assume that these states and
traits are stable
• Ex. Trait niya ay pagiging
mahiyain
Traits
• defined as “any distinguishable,
relatively enduring way in which
individual varies from another
• Appropriate testing of reliability and
validity
• Consistent
• Ex. A person may have a trait of
• being zestful, but they may also
experience states of anxiety when they
face difficult times
States
• also distinguish one person from
another but are relatively less enduring
• there is also appropriate validity and
reliability
• Are not consistent not long lasting
• Ex. Without taking into social context, a
person who keeps on laughing may be
considered as a jolly person. But if we
take into account the social context like
a person who keep laughing at a
funeral, our interpretation of the
behavior and the trait changes a lot.
• Using rrl we can identify if it
stable and more enduring,
compare to other variables
• Samples of behavior may be
obtained in a number of ways,
1
ranging from direct observation
to the analysis of self-report
statements or pencil and paper
test answers
• Confidence Interval- can help
us determine kung nasa gitna ba
ng 2 possible scores yung
minemeasure natin sa isang tao.
• The term psychological trait,
much like the term trait alone,
covers a wide range of possible
characteristics.
o Personality, intelligence
• We don’t collect or measure the
exact variables in Psychology we
only measure sample in
behavior. We use to generalize.
• Psychological traits exist only as
a construct.
Construct
• we cannot hear construct
• An informed, scientific concept
developed or constructed to describe or
explain behavior.
• Hypothesis- di natin siya nakikita or
nahahawakan, we only measure it.
• We can’t see, hear, or touch constructs,
but we can infer their existence from
overt behavior.
• An informed, scientific concept
developed or constructed to
describe or explain behavior
Over behavior
• refers to an observable action or the
product of an observable action,
including test- or assessment-related
responses.

• When you measure a test you
have to make sure that it is
appropriate for the population
• The phrase relatively enduring
in our definition of traits is a
reminder that a trait is not
expected to be manifested in
behavior 100% of the time.
(kapag nasa isang setting isang
tao possible na di naman lahat
100% siya sa in terms of traits sa
isang setting)
• Stated another way, exactly how
particular trait manifests itself,
at least to some extent,
situation-dependent
• The context within which
behavior occurs also plays a role
in helping us select appropriate
trait terms for observed behavior.
• Ex. Meron nag apply sa company
mo for accounting, you assure
that he is good at accounting kasi
yun yung inaplayan niya
ASSUMPTION 2: PSYCHOLOGICAL
TRAITS AND STATES CAN BE
QUANTIFIED AND MEASURED
• The specific traits and states to
be measure and quantified
need to be carefully defined.
• Test developers and researchers,
much like people in general, have
many different ways of looking
2
at and defining the same
phenomenon (for example:
aggression)
• Measuring traits and states by
means of a test developing not
only appropriate test items but
also appropriate ways to score
the test and interpret the
results.
• The test score is presumed to
represent the strength of the
target ability or trait or state and
is frequently based on
cumulative scoring
o Pag sasamahin mo lahat
ng responses of the
participants, you are using
addition
o You get the sum of the
score
o The more tumataas ang
score the more na nag
eexist sakanya or almost
all yung trait
o Ex. 10 Items- Likert scale
of 1-5; the will be 10x5= 50
POSSIBLE HIGHEST
SCORE; THE lowest is 10;
bcs lowest rating is 1
o Higher score; mas mataas
chance that you have the
trait
o Lower score; mas
bumababa ang chance na
wala ka nung trait
• The assumption that the more
the test taker responds in
particular direction as keyed by
 the test manual as correct or o Postdict-help us to
consistent with a particular trait, understand kung ano ba
the higher that test taker is yung nangyari sa
presumed to be on the target behavior of the client in
ability or trait. the past.
• Without cut off score you o Powerful tool especially to
cannot determine whether high court case.
yung score. o If they have possible
psychological condition.
o Pag nag demand ang
ASSUMPTION 3: TEST RELATED court, you will explain
BEHAVIOR PREDICT BEHAVIOR what happen- example of
NON-TEST RELATED BEHAVIOR postdict.

• If the client shows na hindi niya

masagot, may possible na may
ASSUMPTION 4: TEST AND OTHER
motor problems siya.
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES HAVE
o What ever we measure
STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES
inside the room that
o If they provide you high • Di palagi yung fav mo na psych
score possible na next test will be valid
time it will predict the • Competent test user understand
second exam a great deal about the test they
• The objective of the test is to use.
provide some indication of • Test should not limit you, it
other aspect of the examinee’s should help you.
behavior • Competent test users
• The obtained sample of behavior understand and appreciate the
is typically used to make limitations of the test they use
prediction about future as well as how those limitations
behavior, such as work might be compensated for by
performance of job application. data from other sources.
• In some forensic (legal) matters, o you will justify why you
psychological test may be used use that psych test
not to predict behavior but to o Rationale of developing a
postdict it- that is, to aid in the battery of test
understanding of behavior that o NEO-PI- OCEAN
has already taken place.

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 ▪ This scales
measure
personality
▪ Cannot be use to
diagnose
personality
disorder
▪ Because it only
measure normal
personality,
screener
▪ But can be use to to
support the
diagnosis
• The test use know the test they
use and are aware of the tests’
limitations.
ASSUMPTION 5: VARIOUS SOURCES
OF ERROR ARE PART OF THE
ASSESSMENT PROCESS
• Error traditionally refers to
something that is more than
expected; it is actually
component of the
measurement process.
• Error refers to a long-standing
assumption that factor other
than what a test attempts to
measure will influence
performance on the test.
• Building rapport can lessen the
error.
• Error variance the component
of a test score attribute to
sources other than the trait or
ability measured.
4
o Error- source diyan is the
assesse or the test
o Mistake- di mo talaga alam
yung sagot.
• There are many potential process
sources of error variance.
• Assesses themselves are sources
of error variance. Assessors, too,
are sources of error variance.
ASSUMPTION 6: TESTING AND
ASSESSMENT CAN BE CONDUCTS IN
A FAIR AND UNBIASED MANNER
• More controversial than the
remaining six.
• Test user will be the issue if they
didn’t use the test properly.
Meron bias or it is not
appropriate for the client.
• All major test publisher strive to
develop instrument that are
fair when used in strict
accordance with guidelines in
the test manual
o pag test yung problema di
siya makakapag measure
ng dapat mameasure
o However, despite the best
effort of many
professionals, fairness
when used in strict
accordance with
guidelines in the test
manual.
▪ Ex. Board Exam-
pag na pass
 possible na mag
aalign yung plans
mo
o Possible mali yung
nabigay na test, di mo siya
nagamit ng tama.
o Ex. Hiring a Fireman- di
naman need na mataas na
verbal comprehension.
But still proceed giving
him the test kahit di
naman siya need.
• However, despite the best efforts
of many professionals, fairness-
related questions and problems
do occasionally arise.
• One source of fairness-related
problems is the test used who
attempts to use particular test
with people whose background
and experience are different
from the background and
experience of people for whom
the test was intended.
• The use of test properly and
improperly
Reliability
ASSUMPTION 7: TESTING AND
ASSESSMENT BENEFIT SOCIETY
• Ex. Lilipad ka to Boracay, tas
yung pilot pala OJT palang.
o Di man siya nakapag take
ng board exam means di
pa siya na measure if they
are capable
5
• In such a world, people could
present themselves as surgeons,
bridge builders, or airline pilot
regardless of their background,
ability, or professional
credentials.
• In a world without test, teacher
and school administrators could
arbitrary place children in
different types of special classes
simply because that is where
they believed the children
belonged.
• In a world without tests, there
would be no instruments to
diagnose neuropsychological
impairments.
• We have to use instrument,
screen to measure construct in
our field.
What’s a “Good Test”?
• Psychometrics Soundness
o Reliability
o Validity
• The criterion of reliability
involves the consistency of the
measuring tool.
• Test-retest, Parallel Form,
Inter-rater, Internal
Consistency
o Test-Retest and Parallel
Form - consistent in time
 o Inter-rater- consistence
in score and items
• In theory, the perfectly reliable
measuring tool consistently
measure in the same way.
• Unreliable measurement is to be
avoided.
• We want to know that it yields
the same numerical
measurement every time it
measures the same thing under
the same conditions.
• Psychological test, like other test
and instruments, are reliable to
varying degrees.
• Dagdagan ng items para tumaas
• Psychological test, like other test
and instruments, are reliable to
varying degrees.
• Pwede magka iba yung reliability
kahit iba minemeasure
Validity
• More on accuracy of
measurement
• Measure what it purports to
measure.
o It may not be valid to
other group.
o Tinitignan lang is kung
kanino siya valid.
• Questions regarding a test
validity may focus on the items
that collectively make up the
test.
6
o Issue is the start of the
test development.
• From its initial development
through the life its use with
members of different
populations, assessment
professionals may raise
questions regarding the extent to
which a test is measuring what it
purports to measure.
• Tinitignan mo lang kanino ba
valid ang test na ito. Bcs if it is
not for that specific group it is not
valid.
• Mas mauna dapat ma establish
reliability. If di siya na establish
matic na yung validity might not
be established.
• Mas nauuna I-establish and
Reliability compare validity.
• Foundation of validity is the
reliability.
• You have to make sure first if the
content is consistent.
Norms
• Set of score data
• We utilize the norm because not
all the time we have the cut off
scores.
 o So we used norm- o group of people whose
references performance on a
• Norm-reference testing and particular test is
assessment analyzed for reference in
o methods of evaluation evaluating the
and a way of deriving performance of individual
meaning from test scores test scores
by evaluating an o Sila yung tinest mo to
individual testtaker’s establish the norm/
score and comparing it to comparison. (Sample)
scores of a group of • Norming
testtakers o refers to the process of
o you compare your own deriving norms
score sa ibang tao. Para o the process of creating
malaman mo if you have the data.
high score or low score.
• Norm
o singular is used in the Sampling to Develop Norms
scholarly literature to
• Standardization
behavior that is usual,
o the process of
average, normal,
administering a test to a
standard, expected, or
representative sample of
typical.
test takers for the
o What we expected in a
purpose of establishing
group. (ano ba yung
norms
normal/ practices sa
o You make it standard
group na ito.)
kung paano siya ina-
• Norms
administer sa group.
o test data of particular
o Once you make it
group of test takers that
standard (the test) you
are designed for use as a
can use it to compare
reference when
the score to the client
evaluating or interpreting
and to group.
individual test scores.
• Sampling
o what we expect na
o Population- the large
makukuha nating once
group of interest to a
we tested the norm.
researcher
• Normative sample

7
 o Sample- small set of
individuals who
participate in the study
o A sample is selected
from the a population
o The most commonly used
sampling method in
behavioral science
research is probably
convenience sampling
o Not all the time we can
Representative Samples
get the target population,
the convenient sampling
is more easy
Different Types of Population
• Target Population
o Group identified by the
researcher’s specific
interests. Individuals in a
target population typically
share one characteristic.
o Usually, target
populations are not easily
available.
8
• Accessible populations
o The local participants
that can be easily
accessed by the
researcher.
o Most researchers select
their samples from
accessible populations.
o Local participants that
you can easily access.
• How accurate we can
generalized the results from a
given sample to the population
depends on the representative
of the sample.
• Representativeness-
o Refers to the extent to
which the characteristics
of the sample accurately
reflect that
characteristics of the
population.
o how sure are you that the
sample would represent
the whole population of
the BSPsychology for
whole Pampanga.
• Representativeness sample
o is a sample with the
sample the same
characteristics as the
population.
o Characteristics ng
nakuha mong sample is
the same sa target
population mo.
 • Before even beginning to select
sample. You must consider how
well the accessible population
represents the target
population.
• The major threat to selecting a
representative sample is Bias.
• Biased sample
o a sample with different
characteristics from
those of the population
o di mo accurately
nakukuha yung
characteristic ng
population mo using
your sample.
o Ex. Nakakuha ka ng
sample na meron na pre-
existing factor that
sakanila lang ng eexist
hindi sa whole population.
Di niya na represent yung
buong population, it may
affect the study. BIAS
SAMPLE
o Clustering Sample-
meron na existing biased
• Selection Bias or Sampling
Bias
o Occurs when participants
or subjects are selected in
a manner that increases
the probability of
obtaining a biased
sample.
o Pag hindi mo nakuha ng
tama yung
representative, it
9
increases that
probability of obtaining a
bias sample. (sa results
mo lang siya malalaman
kung meron “bias
sample” na nangyari.)
Sample size
The more the participants mas okay
• Law of large numbers
o in statistics this states
that the larger the
sample size, the more
likely it values obtained
from the sample to the
actual values of the
population.
o Average distance- gaano
kalapit and sample mas
better participants we
have, mas generalize ang
result na meron tayo
o Gaano karami ang more?
▪ Depends on the
analysis
• At the other extreme,
researchers often begin in a
research study with specific,
target for the level of accuracy
 • Another factor influencing • In most situations, this
sample size research ethics. information is not available to a
o its unethical to get sample researcher.
na sobra. • This kind of sampling provides a
• If possible, researchers should good foundation for introducing
attempt to anticipate their a good sample size.
results and perform some
preliminary statistical
calculations to determine Probability Sampling Methods
whether the expected results
Simple Random Sampling
are likely to be statistically
significant. o Palagi siyang nasisingit to
o Post hock analysis other sampling
way so you could expect o Parang si Freud to every
how many participants to concepts
collect (more complicated)
The starting The basic The
point for most requirement process of
Probability Sampling probability for random simple
sampling sampling is random
• It has three important conditions; techniques is that each sampling
• (1) Exact size of population must be simple random individual in consist of
known. sampling the the
• (2) Each individual of population must population following
have specified probability of selection has an equal steps:
(meron ka ba listahan of each chance of
individual; because not all the time being
nakukuha lahat yung list) selected.
• (3) Selection process must be unbiased (1) Clearly (2)List all (3)Use a
or RANDOM PROCESS define the the random
population members of process to
Please remember…
from the select
• Notice that probability sampling which you population individuals
requires extensive knowledge want to (it should be from the
select a provide) list.
of the population
sample
• Specifically, we must be able to
list all of the individuals in the WHO IS YOUR LIST ALL USE
population POPULATION MEMBERS RANDOM
PROCESS
IN
SELECTING

10

The two principal methods of
random sampling
• (1) Sampling with replacement:
requires that an individual
selected for the sample be
recorder as a sample member
and then returned to the
population (replaced) before the
next selection is made.
o Ensures that the
probability of selection
remains constant
throughout a series of
selections
o Because the probability
stays constant, this
technique ensures that the
selection are
independent.
o Ex. teacher mo na babalik
yung name na natawag na.
Like 99/99 parin siya kahit
meron na natawag.
o Constant yung
probability na mapipili
yung participants. Kasi
binabalik siya. Hanggang
ma complete mo and
need mo na participants.
• (2) Sampling without
replacement
o Remove each selected
individual from the
population before the next
selection is made.
11
o Guarantees that no
individual appears more
than once in a single
sample.
o However, each time an
individual is removed, the
probability of selection
changes for the
remaining individuals.
o Ex. Teacher mo na
tatanggalin yung name mo
pag nabunot ka na so
tumataas yung probability
na matatawag ka.
• The probability of selection of
individual is increasing, kasi
lumiliit yung number ng
selection mo. Hindi na siya
constant kasi meron na naalis.
• Sampling with replacement is an
assumption of many of the
mathematical models that
forms the foundation of
statistical analysis.
• By using large population,
researchers can sample
without replacement, which
ensures that individuals are not
repeated in one sample, and still
satisfy the mathematical
assumption needer for statistical
analysis.
Systematic Sampling
• A type of probability sampling
that is very similar t-simple
random sampling
• Begins by listing all the
individual in the population,
then randomly picking a
starting point on the list.
• The sample is then obtained by
moving down the list, selecting
every nth name.
• Example: each child’s name is
put on a list and assigned a
number from 1 to 100. Then, the
researcher uses a random
process such as a table of
random numbers to select the
first participant, for example,
participant number 11. With
population of 100 children and a
desired sample of 25, the size of
n in this example is 100/25=4.
Therefore, every fourth
individual after participant 11
(15, 19, 23, and so on) is
selected.
• Less random, because
independence is violated. Kasi
naka depend siya sa total
number or quotient.
• However as probability sampling
method, this method ensures
High degree of
representativeness.
Stratified Random Sampling
12
• A population usually consist of a
variety of identifiable
subgroups.
• The different subgroups can be
viewed as different layers or
strata.
• A researcher’s goal for
representative sample is to
ensure of the different sub
groups is adequately
represented.
• To obtain the kind of sample, we
first identify the specific
subgroups (or strata) to be
included in the sample.
• Then we select equal-sized
random samples from each of
the pre-identified subgroups,
using the same steps in sample
random sampling.
• Combine the subgroup into one
overall sample.
• useful in determining differences
between the groups.
• Problem: Stratified random
sampling tends to produce a
distorted picture of the overall
population (NOT BALANCE
POPULATION BETWEEN
GROUPS).
 • Every individual in the
population does not have an
equal chance of being selected
for the sample (FOR EACH
STRATA)
common characteristics or
share the common experiences
that might influence the variables
being measured.

Non-probability Sampling Methods

Cluster Sampling
Convenience Sampling
• Isang group nalang kukunin mo
• Also known as accidental
kesa sa ibang cluster
sampling or haphazard
• Occasionally, the individuals in
sampling
the population are already
• The most commonly sampling
clustered in preexisting groups,
method in behavior science
and a researcher can randomly
research is probably
select groups instead of
convenience sampling
selecting individuals
• Research simply use as
• Example: A researcher may want
participants those individual
to obtain in a large sample of
who are easy to get
third-grade students from the
• People are selected on the basis
city school system. Instead of
of their availability and
selecting 300 students one at a
willingness to respond.
time, the researcher can
• Considered a weak form of
randomly select 10 classrooms
sampling because it does not
(each with about 30 students)
require knowledge of the
and still end up with 300
population and does not use a
individuals in the sample.
random process for selection.
• Isang group nalang kukunin,
• The researcher exercises very
then your done. You can do this
little control over the
if malawak na population and
representativeness of the
naka bi-section na sila.
sample and, therefore, there is a
• Two advantages: (1) relatively
strong possibility that the
quick and easy way to obtain in a
obtained sample is biased.
large sample; (2) the
o Problem is the
measurement of individual can
representativeness too.
be often be done in groups.
• The individual are probably
• Disadvantage: the individual
not representative of the
within a cluster often have
general population

13
 • But, it is an easier, less
expensive, more timely
technique than the probability
sampling technique
• Two strategies to help correct
of the serious problems
associated with convenience
sampling
o First, try to ensure that
the sample are
reasonably
representative and not
strongly biased.
o Second, provide a clear
description of how the
sample was obtained
and who the
participants are. At least
everyone knows what the
sample looks like and can
make their own
judgments about
representativeness.
Quota Sampling
• You meet a quota
• This sampling can ensure that
subgroups are equally
represented in a convenience
sample.
• Example: a researcher can
guarantee equal group of boys
and girls in a sample of 30
preschool children by
establishing quotas for the
number of individuals to be
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selected from each subgroup.
Rather than simply taking the
first 30 children who agree to
participate, you impose a quota
of 15 girls and 15 boys. After
impose a quota of 15 boys is met,
no other boys have a chance to
participate in the study.
Snow Ball Sampling
• Start with an individual, then
refer sa kilala hanggang dumami
ang participant
• Hidden population; you cannot
ask them directly. (terminal
Illness, sensitive cases)
• Ex. Life experience of patience
diagnose having HIV.
Types of Norms
Compare current score of the test taker
Grade Norms
• Indicate the average test
performance of test takers in a
given school grade
• Developed by administering the
test to representative sample of
children over a range of
consecutive grade levels
• Grade norms have widespread
application, especially to
children of elementary school
age.
 • Both age norms and grade
norms are DEVELOPMENTAL
NORMS
• Developmental Norm- habang
tumatanda yung tao, nag iiba
Local Norms
yung norms kung san mo siya
ccompare.
• Ex. Can be used to school;
entrance exams.
• Habang tumatanda tao nag iiba
yung ginagamit natin
comparison. It should be
similar to their age norms or
grade norm. (Grade 3 compare
it to grade 3 not higher level)
Criterion- Referenced Evaluation
National Norms
• Derived from a normative sample
that was nationally
representative of the population
at the time the norming study
was conducted.
• If you want to compare the
Filipino participants, you
should compare it sa kapwa
niya Filipino not to different
country.
Subgroup norms
• A normative sample can be
segmented by any of the
criteria initially used in selecting
subjects for the sample
• meron na major norms tas
hinati mo pa siya.
15
• Ex. Meron na grade norm na
Grade 4. Tas hatiin mo pa siya na
Female and Male na GR4. Bawal
siya compare sa Female.
• Provide normative information
with respected to the local
population’s performance on
some test
• Applicable in work and school
setting.
• Ex. Entrance Exam- ginagamit
nila to if ma accept ba sila sa
univ. local norm bcs student to
that university.
• Another way to derived meaning
from test score is to evaluate it or
basis of whether or not some
criterion has been met.
• Criterion- standard on which a
judgement or decisions may be
based.
o Cut off Score
o Ex. 1-100 ang exam the cut
off score is 70. Tas pag di
mo na meet you failed.
o Achievement Test
o To be licensed as a
psychologist, the
applicant must achieve a
score that meets or
exceeds the score
mandated by the state on
the licensing test.
 • Criterion-referenced testing criteria for
and assessment inclusion in
o defined as a method of some group
evaluation and a way of
deriving meaning from
test scores by evaluating Reliability
an individual‘s score with
reference to a set The Concept of Reliability
standard. • Error refers to the component of
• Critics if the criterion-reference the observed test score that does
approach argue that if it is not have to with testtaker’s
strictly followed, potentially ability
important information about an • Error is different from mistake.
individual’s performance relative • (X= T + E)
to other testtakers is lost. o X= observe score
Difference between Norm-Reference o T= true score
and Criterion-Reference o E= Error
• Measurement Error
Norm Criterion- o All of the factors
Reference Reference
associated with the
• Focus is • Interpretatio
process of measuring
how an ns of test
individu data, a usual some variable.
al area of focus o Di mo naman
perform is the minemeasure pero
ed testtaker’s sumasama sa observe
relative performance score or true score of test
to other :
taker
people • What the
who testtaker can two kinds of Error
took the or cannot do
test. • What the • Random Error
testtaker has o Source of error in
or not measuring a targeted
learned variable caused by
• Whether
unpredictable
that
testtaker fluctuations and
does or does inconsistencies of other
not meet
specified

16
 variable in the
measurement process
o Ex. Noise and physical
events
o Di ma predict kung ano
yung magiging effect sa
score of the participants
o Di mo alam kung ano
yung magiging effect sa
score of the test taker
pag meron mga
distractions.
• Systematic Error
o Source of error in
measuring a variable that
is typically constant or
proportionate to what is
presumed to be the true
value of the variable being
measured
o Once known, can be
predicted.
o Ex. Meron sa quiz na wala
yung sagot sa question, so
matic na meron sila point
each.
Source of Error
• Test Construction
o Item sampling or content
sampling- variation
among items within a test
o Sometimes we are
developing an items that
are not related to
theoretical framework
that you are using.
17
o Pag gawa palang ng test
items meron na
problema.
• Test administration
o May influence the test
taker’s attention or
motivation
o Examiner-related variable
are potential sources of
error variance.
o Test taker could affect the
result of the test
• Test Scoring and Interpretation
o Computer-storable item
have virtually eliminated
error variance.
o Computer scored test
mas less ang error than
hand scored test.
Overlooked items.
Reliability Estimates
Test-Retest Reliability
• Estimate of reliability obtained
by correlating pairs of scores
from the same people on two
different administration of the
same test
o Dalawa form ito na
similar (test), and
similar takers.
o Tinitignan dito kung
stable ba siya, magkaiba
yung time
• Appropriate when evaluating the
reliability of a test that purports
 to measure something that is Parallel-Form and Alternate-Forms
relatively stable over time. Reliability
o If not stable, not
• Matagal gawin and magastos
appropriate.
• The degree of relationship
▪ Not appropriate to
between various forms of a test
measure mood
can be evaluated by means of an
kasi di siya stable
alternate-forms of parallel-forms
o Longer time- lower
coefficient of reliability
reliability coefficient;
• Magka iba yung test items pero
Shorter time-higher
same ang minemeasure
reliability coefficient.
• Coefficient of Equivalence
▪ Longer-time-lower
reliability mas o Equal ba yung test 1, sa
marami ng nangyari test 2. Similar ba ang
sa test takers, difficulty of the content.
possible different • Parallel Forms
na yung magiging o For each of test, the
answer niya and it means and the variance
can affect the of observed test scores
scores are equal (parallel forms
▪ Shorter time- reliability)
higher reliability o Correlate equally to true
kasi probably wala score
pa masyado ng iba o Both test are similar in
sa test taker. means and variance. Na
o How many weeks or month nakikita sa scores ng
before you take the test mga participants.
again: 2-6 months. • Alternate forms
o Minimum is 2 weeks o Two different forms, but
▪ For children same difficulty (alternate
shorter time (fast forms reliability)
changes) o Kung mahirap yung test
▪ Adults can be mo yung second test
longer same din dapat yung
• Coefficient of stability- estimate level of difficulty mo
of test-retest reliability • Similar in two ways:

18
 o (1) 2 administrations
with the same group are
required;
▪ Pag wala yung
participant to
second test you
have to drop the
participant
▪ One of the
problem AT and
PF is the
participant might
not be available in
second part of the
test.
o (2) scores may be affected
by motivation, fatigue,
practice, and learning.
• Time consuming and expensive.
Split-Half Reliability Estimates
• Correlating two pair of scores
obtained from equivalent halves
of a single test administered
once
• Hati yung test and also the
reliability.
o Less reliability
o Gawa ng isang test,
administer it once, hatiin
mo and then correlate
yung pagkaka hati niya.
• Useful measure of reliability
when it is impractical or
undesirable to assess
19
reliability with two test or to
administer a test twice
(because of factors such as time
or expense)
o Step 1: divide the test into
equivalent halves
o Step 2: Calculate a
person R between scores
on the two halves
o Step 3: adjust the split-
half reliability using
Spearman-Brown
Formula
o estimate internal
consistency reliability
from a correlation of two
halves of a test
• Simply Dividing the test in the
middle is not recommended.
• Once acceptable way to split a
test to random assign items
• Odd-even technique (odd-even
reliability)
Inter-Item Consistency
• Degree of correlation among all
the items on a scale
• The more they correlate sa
item the more na you measure
motivation. If di correlated
yung item remove it.
 o Take note na pag meron
negative correlation
pwede parin siya kasi
correlate parin siya
• Calculated from a single
administration of a single form
of a test
• Useful in assessing homogeneity
of the test.
• Test are said to be homogeneous
if they contain items that
measure a single trait.
• The more homogenous a test is,
the more inter-item
consistency it can be expected
to have.
1. The Kuder-Richarson Formulas
• Choices for determining the
inter-item consistency of
dichotomous items, primarily
those items that can be scored
right or wrong.
• Can be Dichotomous items.
o Right or wrong
• K= number of items; o2=
variance of total scores;
p= proportion of testtakers who
pass the item; q=the porportion
of people who fail the item
• KR21- may be used if there is
reason to assume that all the test
item have approximately the
same degree of difficulty.
20
o Same na hirap yung
items
• Multiple choice are KR20.
dichotomous- meron tama at
mali sagot
o Ex. Pag dalawa lang
o same difficulty
• Pa gala ang KR sa choices kung
ano yung Dichotomous Items.
The choices is; a. Split, b. CA,
c.TRT, d. Split; the answer would
be CA.
2. Coefficient Alpha
• The mean of all possible split-
half correlations, corrected by
Spearman-Brown formula
• Appropriate for used on test
containing nondichotomous
items.
o Strongly disagree-
disagree…
o Likert scale
• Preferred statistic for obtaining
an estimate of internal
consistency reliability
• Required only one
administration of the test.
• Coefficient alpha typically
ranges in value from 0 to 1.
• Value of alpha above .90 may be
“too high” and indicate
redundancy in the items.
 o At least .90 is too high Classical Test Theory (CTT)
baka paulit ulit nalang
• Also referred to as the true score
items
(Or classical) model of
• Ex. Personality test-walang tama
measurement
sagot but you score them- non-
• True Score- a value that
dichotomous
according to the classical test
Measures of Inter-Scorer Reliability theory genuinely reflects an
individual’s ability (or trait) level
• Results would be the same no
as measured by a particular test
matter who is doing the
• CTT much more simpler to
evaluating.
understand that IRT
• Iba iba yung tao na mag
• Factor analytic techniques,
magbibigay ng test sa isang
whether exploratory or
client but still similar yung test
confirmatory, are all “based on
na bibigay. Tapos pag pipnag
the CTT measurement
sama na yung score and same
foundation”
same sila it is evident that it is
• CTT has to do with its
inter-scorer reliability.
assumption concerning the
• Also know as “scorer
equivalence of all items on test;
reliability”, judge reliability”,
that is; all items are presumed
“observer reliability“, and
to be contributing equally to
“inter-rater reliability”
the score total
• Degree of agreement or
• CTT favor the development of
consistency between two or
longer rather than shorter
more scorers or judge or raters)
tests.
with regard to a particular
• Paper and Pen
measure.
• Ex. Kahit ano yung level of
• Inter-scorer reliability is often
difficulty similar yung points; IRT
used when coding nonverbal
is depends on difficulty
behavior.
o Behavior, projective test Domain Sampling Theory
• Coefficient of inter-scorer
• Seeks to estimate the extend to
reliability.
which specific sources of
variation under defined
conditions are contributing to
The True Score Model of
the test score.
Measurement and Alternatives to it

21
 • A test’s reliability is conceived of o Have the same mean and
as an objective measure of how variances (not sure)
precisely the test score assesses • Step 3: Test items reflects
the domain from which the test content
draw sample • Step 4 Adjusted for relative
• The item is the domain are importance
thought to have the same
means and variance of those in
the test that sample from the Generalizability Theory
domain.
• A person’s test scores vary
• Measures of internal
from testing to testing because
consistency are perhaps the
of variable in the test situation.
most compatible with domain
• Cronbach suggested that test
sampling theory.
developers and researchers to
• Ex. You measure math
describe the details of the
competency of a child.
particular test situation or
o It is wide topic
universe leading to a specific
o Even if it focus sa isang
test score.
topic the Domain
• This universe is described in
sampling assumes that it
terms of its faces, which
has the same mean and
include things like the number
variance to the
of items in the test, the amount
construct.
of training
• Kahit limited yung number of
• According to the generalizability
domains mo, na represent niya
theory, given the exact same
parin yung domain na sinu-
conditions of all the facets in
survey mo.
the universe, the exact same
Lets have an example: Creation of test score should be obtained.
fourth-grade math achievement test • Ex. Exam for NEO-Pi. Siksikan,
temp is not okay.
• Domain: Math
o You are irritable during
• Grade 4
the test taking
• Step 1: Survey the domain
o Assuming lumabas yung
o Ask professionals like the
results and high siya
teachers
o After ilan months same
• Steps 2: Content matches
conditions, makaka kuha
domain

22
 ka ng same scores o Testing the limit- you still
because it is the same. administer some of the
▪ Scenario items kahit di mo na
▪ Test administer based on the
▪ Test administrator manual, bcs you believe
o In reality its hard to na there is probably an
maintain error, you can ask more
difficult questions.

Item Response Theory (IRT)

Reliability and Individual Score
• Probability that a person with X
ability will be able to perform The Standard Error of Measurement
at a level of Y.
• Often abbreviated as SEM
• Stated in terms of personality
• Provides a measure of the
assessment, it models the
precision of an observed test
probability that a person with X
score.
amount of a particular
• In general, the relationship
personality test designated to
between the SEM and the
measure it
reliability of a test in inverse
• Focuses on item difficulty and
o Higher SEM, lower
item discrimination.
Reliability
o Item Difficulty- focuses
o Higher error, lower
gaano kahirap items
reliability
o Item Discrimination- it
• This standard error of
discriminates kung sino
measurement is most frequently
nakaka alam sa hindi
used in the interpretation of
nakaka alam
individual test scores.
• Ex. Sb5 Test, WAIS
• Confidence interval
• Once you can answer question
o a range or band of test
pwede ka na mag skip to other
scores that is likely to
level. Then pag nagkamali ka
contain the true score
babalik ka sa easier items.
o it will give you to explain
o But some test di siya
beyond the numbers. You
babalik sa mas mahirap.
have to use the range of
Probably baka may mali
score to explain the true
lang. but pag mali siya
score.
after that stop na

23
 • You use range to get yung scores
of participants.
Validity
The Concept of Validity
• A judgement or estimate of how
will a test measures what it
purports to measure in a
particular context.
o How sure you are it
measure depression?
• A judgment based on evidence
about the appropriate of
inferences draw from test
scores.
• How sure you are that you
interpretation will be accurate
in terms of validity.
• Rember: No test or
measurement technique is
“universally valid” for all time,
for all uses, with all types of
testtaker populations.
• Validation
o The process of gathering
and evaluating evidence
about validity
o You gather data, you
evaluate evidence of
validity
• It is the test developer’s
responsibility to supply validity
evidence in the test manual
• It is also appropriate for test
users to conduct their own
24
validation studies with their
own groups of test takers
• Local Validation Studies
o Absolutely necessary
when the test user plans
to alter in some way the
format, instructions,
language, or content of
the test.
o Pag meron ka changes
na gusto mo gawin sa
isang scale. Need ng
validation palagi if there
is changes na gagawin.
Trinitarian View
Content validity
• this is a measure of validity
based on an evaluation of the
subjects, topics, or content
covered by the item in the test.
Criterion-related validity
• This is a measure of validity
obtained by evaluating the
relationship of scores obtained
on the test to scores on other test
or measures.
Construct Validity
• This is a measure of validity that
is arrived at the executing a
comprehensive analysis of
 o A. How scores on the test
relate to other test
scores and measures
o how scores on the test
can be understood
within some theoretical
framework for
understanding the
constrict that the test was
designed to measure
• Trinitarian approach to validity
assessment are not mutually
exclusive
• All three types of validity
evidence contribute to a unified
picture of a test’s validity
• One type of validity evidence may
be more relevant than another.
Content Validity
Face Validity
• Appearance of the test, kung
katiwala wala siya
• Related more to what a test
appears to measure to the
person being tested than to what
the test actually measures.
• Face validity is a judgment
concerning how relevant the
test items appear to be
• Inkblots- low in face validity
o Rorschach Inkblot Test
o Holtzman Inkblot test
o Test taker doesn’t know
they are measuring.
25
o About personality or
unconsciousness
• Face validity are frequently
thought of from the perspective
of the test taker, not the test
user.
• A test’s lack of face validity
could contribute to a lack of
confidence in the perceived
effectiveness of the test—with a
consequential decrease in the
testtaker’s cooperation or
motivation to do his or her best
• Face validity may be more a
matter of public relation that
psychometric soundness. Still,
it is important.
• More on relationship with the
testtakers and the test itself
• A judgement of how adequately
a test samples behavior
representative of the universe
of behavior that the test was
designed to sample.
• Test developers have a clear
vision of the construct being
measured, and the clarity of this
vision can be reflected in the
content validity of the test.
• Test developers strive to include
key components of the
construct targeted for
measurements and exclude
content irrelevant to the
construct targeted for
measurement.
 • Construct Irrelevant Measures-
variable na di naman dapat
covered ng instrument mo pero
na memeasure sila. Construct
Irrelevant Measure
• The content might be valid in
one context but not in the other
context.
• If you are trying to establish
content validity, and hinahanap
dito is the TEST BLUEPRINT
(CVI- Content Validity Index)
• Predictive Validity
Criterion-Related Validity
• Judgement of how adequately a
test score can be used to infer
an individual’s most probable
standing on some measure of
interest
• You use another standard to
evaluate a test.
• Two types, (a) concurrently
validity and (b) predictive
validity (these 2 both have a
standard)
• Concurrent Validity
o An index of the degree to
which a test score is
related to some criterion
measure obtained at the
same time (concurrently
[present]).
o Current standing of test
taker
o It’s the extent of
relationship between the
26
current score of the test
taker to your test, and
the relationship of
another measure.
o Ex. You correlate yung
math grade
(performance test,
quizzes, activities) nung
student to you test. You
may infer na meron
validity yung ginagawa
mo kasi positively
correlated sila.
o Time you have to wait
o An index of the degree to
which a test score
predicts some criterion
measure.
o More on the future. You
wait pa for their scores.
o Regression-
o Ex. You can use the exam
results of a student noong
grade 4 siya to grade 6 to
predict. You can use that
information to predict
yung performance of
students.
o Ex. Entrance Examination
of Students. They predict
kung magiging mataas
yung mga grades nila or
kung sino yung mababa.
o Ex. Clinical Cases. Test
can detect it earlier.
Maganda non yung
predictive validity niya.
Predictive Validity o Defined as the proportion
of people the test fail to
• Ex. Measure of Depression
identify as having, or not
• Base Rate
having a particular
o The extent to which a
characteristic or
particular trait, behavior,
attribute.
characteristics, attribute
o Ex. Those who have high
exist in the population
scores with depression—
(expressed as a
do not show symptoms.
proportion)
▪ Yung mababa
o How sure are we that it
naman yung
exist among our test
scores sila yung
takers.
meron symptoms.
o Initial level of our
measure Divided into 2—Miss Rate
• Hit Rate
• False positive
o Defined as the proportion
o A miss wherein the test
of people a test
predicted that the
accurately identifies a
testtaker did posses the
possessing or exhibiting
particular characteristic
a particular trait,
or attribute being measure
behavior, characteristics
when in fact the
o Ex. Measure the
testtaker din not.
depression.
o Na diagnose mo siya kahit
▪ Shown na mataas
wala man siya depression
na score mataas
kasi high yung score
ang symptoms of
• False Negative
depression
o A miss wherein the test
▪ Low score do not
predicted that the
show symptoms of
testtaker did not posses
depression
the particular
▪ In that case, it is a
characteristic or attribute
HIT—because it
being measured when the
identify the
testtaker actually did.
testtaker
o You falsely assume based
experience
on the score that they do
depression
not possess the
• Miss Rate
characteristics. In reality,

27
 they are showing the
symptoms.
o A miss wherein the test
predicted that the
testtaker did not possess
the particular
characteristic or attribute
being measured when the
testtaker actually did
o Mababa yung score and
you diagnose that he
experience depression
• True Positive
o Mataas yung score, and
show symptoms—you
diagnose them
• True Negative
o Mababa yung scores, and
wala pinapakita na
symptoms.
Construct Validity
• Judgement about the
appropriateness of inferences
Evidence of Construct Validity
drawn from test scores
regarding individual standings on
a variable called construct
o Test scores can provide
you an explanation
about the construct.
• Construct
o Informed, scientific idea
developed or
hypothesized to describe
or explain behavior or
criterion performance.
28
o Its unobservable you only
relies on the observable
behavior
• Construct are unobservable,
presupposed (underlying)
traits that a test developer may
invoke to describe test behavior
or criterion performance.
• If the test is valid measure of the
construct, then high scorers and
low scorers will behave as
predicted by the theory.
o Kung sumunod yung test
scores sa theory stated it
has construct validity.
• One possible reason for
obtaining results contrary to
those predicted by the theory is
that the test simply not measure
the construct.
o You have to revise
• Construct validity has been
viewed as the unifying concepts
for all validity evidence.
• Homogeneity
o Similarity—similarity of
what?
▪ The test items
• sa loob ng
test
▪ the more correlated
sa isa’t isa the more
na may construct
validity.
o Internal Consistency is
established probably you
 establish na the ▪ Post-Test- bumaba
homogeneity score niya
• Increase and decrease as a • then the CBT
function of age is gumana
o If the score provided by kasi bumaba
your test is expected to yung level ng
change. depression.
o Habang tumatanda ng • Distinct groups
babago yung score ibig o You distinguish sino dapat
sabihin meron construct group 1 and group 2.
validity yung test mo. o Level of depression:
o Longitudinal- susundan distinguishing kung sino
mo participants mo and yung may trait at sino
bibigyan mo ng test every yung wala.
year. Tas pag sumasabay ▪ Meron depression:
yung age niya sa pag dapat mataas yung
increase ng score niya score
meron Construct Validity. ▪ Wala depression:
Valid ang ginawa mong mababa dapat
reading comprehension score
o Cross-sectional- multiple o Pag nagging baligtad.
age groups. Give the test o Possible na may mali
and tignan mo kung may yung Test. You have to
differences ba sila. kung believe yung participant
pataas yung grades each kasi dumaan sila sa
participant with different process to identify if they
age group. have depression or not.
• Pre-test and post-test • Convergent and Divergent
o Can be evidence of o Convergent
construct validit. ▪ Use a test that is
o Ex. Depression scale. already established
▪ CBT sa isang ▪ Cyberchondria-
participant; dapat online version of
mag improve and illness anxiety
functioning. scale.
▪ Pre-test- mataas ▪ You expect a
score niya correlated scales
▪ CBT

29
 ▪ Parenting style and
depression if di sila
related meron
divergent
▪ Paglumabas na may
kabaligtaran to two
establish
o Divergent
▪ You expect
uncorrelated
scales.
▪ Dapat magkaiba
minemeasure nila
▪ Ex. Depression and
parenting style
• At lumabas
sa results mo
na di sila
correlated
meron non
divergent
validity ang
scale.
• pag wala ka mahanap na scale na
similar; look for more literature
similar as much as possible
Factor Analysis
• Factor analysis is a shorthand
term for a class of
mathematical procedures
designed to identify factors or
specific variables that are
typically attributes,
characteristics, or dimensions
Test Bias
on which people may differ.
30
• Useful in reliability and validity
• Frequently employed as a data
reduction method in which
several sets of scores and the
correlations between them are
analyzed.
o you can use this in
reducing the data, pag
madami items. You can
detect kung ano yung
walang correlation sa isa’t
isa
• 2 types of FA
o Exploratory factor
analysis (EFA)
▪ wala ka pa idea
kung ano uyng
factors na lalabas.
o Confirmatory Factor
Analysis (CFA)
▪ meron a na idea
ano yung factors,
and you will
confirm if sila ba
magkakasama
• Factor Loading
o Convery information
about the extent to which
the factor determines the
test score or scores.
o At least there is .30
variances to be
considered sa isang factor
o Use percentage for that
 • A Factor inherent in a test that
systematically prevents
accurate, impartial
measurement.
o Gumagawa ng test are
bias
• Some test have been found to be
biased has more to do with the
design of the research study
than the design of the test.
• Prevention during test
development is the best cure for
test bias.
o We should screen items
thoroughly, we let other
professionals to review
the items
Rating Error
• A judgment resulting from the
intentional or unintentional
misuse of a rating scale
• Distribution error
o Leniency Error- overly
high
▪ puro 5 ang sagot
niya
o Severity Error- overly low
▪ Mababa response
puro 1
o Central Tendency-
middle of the rating
▪ Puro 3 yung sagot
niya
Halo Effect (a mental shortcut)
31
• A tendency to give a particular
ratee a higher rating the he or
she objectively deserve because
of the rater’s failure to
discriminate among
conceptually distinct and
potentially independent
aspects of a ratee’s behavior.
• Ex. Meron ginawa Mabuti sayo
and you assume mo na mabait na
sayo yung tao 100%. Delicado sa
validity.
Test Fairness
• The extent to which a test is
used in an impartial, just and
equitable way
• The test developers strives for
fairness in the test development
process and in the test’s manual
and usage guidelines.
• the test user strives for fairness
in the way the test is actually
used.
Inferential Statistics
You need data and assumptions
Assumptions are the rules na
kailangan sundan bago mo masabi na
tama yung statistical test na gamit mo.
Kung tama ba ang data or ginamit mo
na test.
Which of These?
 • Will I test if there is any • The data should be normally
significant relationship among distributed.
variables? CORRELATION o To test:
o Is there any relationship? ▪ Histogram- pag
Variable A Variable B kamuka niya
• Will I test if a variable significant normal curve you
predicts another variable? can assume that it
REGRESSION meets a normal
o prediction distribution.
• Will I compare mean/ median to ▪ Approximate of
different/same group? TEST OF normal curve
DIFFERENCE • Kolmogorov-Smirnov pag
o Question is asking for participants mo is exact or >50
comparison o >.05
• Eliminate na yung questions pag o <.05
wala yung Correlation, • Shapiro-Wilk <50
Regression, Test of Difference o >.05
o <.05
• The variance should be
homogenous
o Levene’s Test >.05 bago
maging homogenous
o Meaning of Homogenous
variance it is fair that you
compare them. When you
compute yung variance
magka lapit lang. mean
nalang compare
sakanila—that is fair to
test. meaning wala
masyado outlier.
Assumptions
o <.05 Leven’s test <.05=
• Next is that you need to violated and
determine what you should use. homogeneity of variance
• Pag mali ang test mali yung use non parametric
results rather than parametric

Parametric Test

32
 • Data Cleaning if you want to use Spearman Rank-Order
Parametric kahi na violated ang
• Association between two
homogeneity
ORDINAL/RANKED variables
o You normalize the data
• Ordinal- Ordinal
• The variables are INTERVAL OR
• Interval- Ordinal
RATIO
• Continuous variable Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance
o Pinagsama interval or
• Association between two
ratio
ORDINAL VARIABLES
• Mas powerful and Parametric—
• Alternative to SPEARMAN if
mas nakakapag generalize.
many tied ranks
Nonparametric Test • Number of ranks are mas
marami compare sa normal
• Continuous – pag pinag sama
distribution
yung
• Any distribution Point-Biserial
• The homogeneity of variance is
• Association between 1
also not required.
CONTINUOUS and 1 TRUE
• The variables can be ORDINAL
DICHOTOMOUS variable
or NORMINAL
o DICHOTOMOUS means 2
• ARTIFICIAL DICHOTOMOUS-
ikaw lang gumawa ng paraan
Test of Correlation
para maging 2 lang
Pearson R o Ex. Assessment exam, you
set a cut off score it
• Two variables measured on
become artificial kasi ikaw
INTERVAL OR RATIO SCALE
gumawa para maging
• V1-V2
dichotomous.
• V1- interval ratio; correlated to
other interval ratio V2
• If your 2 variables can be
measured by Interval ratio;
another is interval ratio; use
Pearson R
• V1 is Continuous/ Interval; V2
is Continuous/Interval= it
should be Pearson R

33
 • TRUE DICHOTOMOUS- in
nature, there only two category.
• I/R -- TD= PB

Biserial Correlation

• Association between 1
CONTINUOUS and 1
ARTIFICIAL DICHOTOMOUS
• ARTIFICIAL DICHOTOMOUS-
has underlying values but forced Regression
to be dichotomy
Linear Regression
• I/R -- AD= B
• Used when you want to predict
Tetrachoric R
the variable using another
• Association between two variable.
ARTIFICIAL DICHOTOMOUS • Predictor (IV)= 1 Continuous;
• AD-- AD o Predict Criterion
o (+) Nadadagdagan yung
Phi-Coefficient
bilang
• Association between two TRUE o Di nagbabago nature. Di
DICHOTOMOUS pwede nominal,ordinal-
• TD -- TD palagi lang interval
ratio—continuous.
Direction
• Criterion (DV)= 1 Continuous
• Positive o Nagbabago nature ng
• Negative criteria
o Pwede maging Ratio,
Magnitude
ordinal, nominal
• Strength of association
Ordinal Regression
• Familiarize with the range of
correlational value • Used to predict ordinal
• Ex. Relationship between age dependent using one or more
and intelligence is .42 continuous independent
variable.
• Criterion= 1 Continuous;
Predictor= 1 Ordinal
• I/R → O

34
Multiple Linear regression
• Extension of linear regression
• Predictor= 2 or more
Continuous; Criterion= 1
Continuous
• I/R → IR
• nadagdagan ka ng predictor
Logistic Regression
• Predicts the probability of an
observation between categorical
and continuous variable.
• Criterion= 1 Predictor ;
Nominal =1 Continuous
Multinominal Regression
• Extension of Logistic Regression;
used to predict a nominal
dependent variable given on or
more independent variable.
• Criterion- 1 Nominal;
Predictor= 2 or more
Continuous
Ordinal Regression
• Used to predict ordinal
dependent using one or more
continuous independent
variable.
• Criterion= 1 Ordinal; Predictor=
1 Continuous
Test of Difference
You need to determine first HOW MANY
GROUP/S do you want to comapare!
35
• Dependent Groups
o Determining the score of
psych students.
o Isang group but multiple
scores. 2 dependent
scores yung grades nila.
o Paired T-Test non siya
o But if it is not normally
distributed; Non-
Parametric you will use
Wilcoxon Signed Rank
Test
o Nag add na ng score
nagging 3 so change na
ng test which is the
RANOVA.
o Pag may mali ulit is you
will use the Freidman
Rank Test
• Independent Group
o Different Grous
o Ex. AUF student and Other
students—ONE SCORE
Unpaired T-Test
▪ Not normal use the
Non-Parametric
Mann-Whitney
o Ex. AUF, Holy Cross,
HAU—ONE SCORE use
one way/ two way anova
 ▪ Not normal use
Kruskal-Walis Test
• Pag may statement na nakapag
data cleaning normal na non
yon, parametric na non yung
gagamitin.
• Normally Distributed…
significant levene’s test it is
still non-parametric parin
o Significant Levene’s test-
it is not fair to compare
the groups (non-
parametric)
• Normally Distributed –
Insignificant levene’s Test
• Pag wala sinabi or yung normal
distribution it is normal
distribution lang
Other types of ANOVA
One-way ANOVA
• Isa lang yung way to group the
participants
Two-way ANOVA
• There are two ways to divide the
participants
36
ANCOVA
• Consider the number of studying
• You have 2 Independent groups
o 1 Nominal by group
o 1 Independent Variable
(Ordinal)
• Dependent (response) (test
scores)
• If you investigate the differences
of college graduate and hs
students using the or by
correlating the number of hrs
spend studying.
• Situation demands dependent
variable; age, weight,
intelligence score, anxiety
score use by grouping the
participants
One-Way Manova
• One IV; 2 Dependent V
 • Titignan kung may difference ba Mancova
and hs and college degree to test
scores and annual income.
• Magkasabay yung dependent
variable na ia-analyze. Pag
Nakita mo na dalawa yung DV
same I/R; IV categorical.

Two-Way Manova

• 2 Dependent Variable-
continuous; 1 Factorial ANOVA; 1
Categorical; 1 Co-variate (1
interval ratio [i/o])
• Mutiple Analysis of Co-Variance

Descriptive, Correlational, and

• you group them based on their
educational level; based on
zodiac sign; you compare it
based on their test scores and
annual income.
• Giving you more information
when it comes to differences of
group.
• Two Factors; Independent
Variable; Two Factors;
Continous-Dependent
Variables
Experimental Research Design
• Psychologist agree that if their
ideas and theories about
human behavior are to be takem
seriously, they must be backed
up by data.
• Research Design- a specific
method that researcher’s uses to
collect, analyze, and interpret
data.
o Descriptive research-
research designed to
provide a snapshot of the
current state of affairs.
▪ Explain what is the
mean, median,
mode what is the
SD, Variance..
o Correlational research-
research designed to

37
 discover relationships
among variables and to
allow the prediction of
future events from
knowledge.
▪ Relationship
between two or
more variables.
▪ Can level up to
regression.
o Experimental research-
research in which initial
equivalence among
research participants in
more than one group is
created, followed by a
manipulation of a given
experience for these
groups and measurement
of the influence of the
manipulation.
▪ You have to
manipulate the IV
to see if there are
changes in
dependent variable.
Descriptive Research
• Designed to create a snapshot of
the current thoughts, feelings, or
behaviors of individuals.
• Under the Descriptive research:
Case Study
• Descriptive records of one or
more individuals experiences
and behaviors
38
• Involve ordinary individuals, as
when developmental
psychologist Jean Piaget used
his observation of his own
children.
• Less than 5 participants
• Conducted on individual who
have unusual or abnormal
experiences or characteristics or
who find themselves in
particularly difficult or stressful
situation
• Assumptions is that by carefully
studying individuals we can
learn something about human
nature.
Surveys
• A measure administered through
either an interview or a written
questionnaire to get a picture of
the beliefs or behaviors.
• the people chosen to participate
in the research (known as the
sample) are selected to be
representative of all the people
that the researcher wishes to
know about (the population)
• Use this to explain what is likely
to happen
• In election polls, for instance, a
sample is taken from the
population of all “likely voters” in
the upcoming elections.
Naturalistic Observation
• Research based on the
observation of everyday events.
 • A developmental psychologist Correlation
who watches children on a
playground and describes what
they say to each other while they
play is conducting descriptive
research, as is a biopsychologist
who observes animals in their
natural habitats.
• One example of observational
research involves a systematic
procedure known as the strange • One way of organizing the data
situation, used to get a picture of from a correlational study with
how adults and young children two variables is graph the values
interact. of each of the measure variables
using a;
o scatter plot- a visual
Correlational Research: Seeking image of the relationship
Relationships among Variables between two variables.
o The more na naka dikit
• Correlational research involves
sila sa mga lines (circles-
the measurement of two or more
which are the scores) mas
relevant variables and an
correlate and variables
assessment of the relationship
o Pag di naka dikit mas
between or among those
weak ang correlation
variables.
• Positive linear relationship
• When there are two variable in
o When the straight line
the research design, one of
indicates that the
them is called the predictor
individuals who have
variable and the other outcome
above-average values for
variable.
one variable also tend to
have above-average
values for the other
variable
o Same na tumataas
• Negative linear relationships
o When above-average
values for one variable
tend to be associated with

39
 below-average values for
the other variable
o Yung isa tumataas yung
isa bumababa
• Most common statistical
measure of the strength of linear
relationships among variables is
the Pearson Correlation
Coefficient (r)
• The value of the correlation
coefficient ranges from r=-1.00
to r=+1.00
• Positive Values of r indicate that
the relationship is positive linear
(i.e., the runs from the lower left
to the upper right), whereas
negative values of r indicate
negative linear relationships
(i.e., the dots run from the upper
left to the lower right).
• An important limitation of
correlational research designs
is that they cannot be used to
draw conclusions about the
casual relationship among the
measure variables.
o Not everything that
correlated is because of
causality as well. Di
porket nag correlated
dahil sa isa’t isa talaga.
o If you want investigate
kung meron causal
relationship or siya ba
talaga cause we have to
use experimental design
• Although this positive
correlation appears to support
40
the researcher’s hypothesis, it
cannot be taken to indicate
that viewing violent television
causes aggressive behavior. BE
CAREFUL
• Perhaps children who have
behave aggressively at school
develop residual excitement that
leads them to want to watch
violent television shows at home
• Risk of correlation di natin
alam kung sino sa dalawa yung
nag llead of causation.
Possible din na baligtad
• It is also possible that both
causal direction are operating
and that the two variables cause
each other.
• Still another possible
explanation for the observed
correlation is that it has been
produced by the presence of a
common-causal variable
• Common-causal variable
o a variable that is not
part of the research
hypothesis but that
causes both the
predictor and the
outcome variable and
thus produce the
observed correlation
between them.
o Eto yung variable di natin
na measure sa study
natin, but because of that
kaya nag karoon ng
relationship ang
 dalawang variable natin.
Pag inalis mo yan sa
formula mawawala yung
relationship of the two
variables.
• In our example, a potential
common-causal variable is the
discipline style of the children’s
parents
• When the predictor and
outcome variable is the
discipline style of the children’s
parents
• When the predictor and
outcome variable are both
caused by a common-causal
variable, the observed
relationship between them is
said to be spurious.
• Spurious relationship- a
relationship between two
variable in which a common-
causal variable procedures and
“explain away” the relationship.
o Pag inalis mo yung isang
variable nawawala yung
relationship ng dalawa
• If effects of the common-causal
variable were taken away, or
controlled for, the relationship
41
between the predictor and
outcome variable would be
disappear.
• Common-causal variables
o in correlation research
designs can be thought of
as mystery variables
because, as they have not
been measured. Their
presence and identity re
usually unknown to the
researchers.
o mystery variables, bihira
makita. Its existence is
always a possibility.
• The existence of an unknown
common-causal variable is
always a possibility
• It is important that when you
read about correlational
research projects, you keep in
mind the possibility of
spurious relationships.
• In sum, Correlational research
designs have both strengths
and limitations. One strength is
that they can be used when
experiment research not
possible because the predictor
variable cannot be
manipulated.
• We can also use correlational
designs to make predictions- for
instance, to predict from the
score on their battery of test.
o Square the results
between the 2 variables
 • But we cannot use such
correlational information to
determine whether the
training caused better job
performance. For that,
Experimental
researchers rely on
experiments.
Experimental Research:
Understanding the Causes of
Behavior
• Provide more definitive
conclusions about the causal
relationship among the
variables in the research
hypothesis than is available from
correlation designs.
• Mas makikita mo dito na ang
Variable A is really the reason
that the Variable B ay nagbabago.
• The variables of Interest are
called the independent
variables (IV) and the
dependent variable (DV)
• Independent variables
o The causing variable that
is created (manipulated)
by the experimenter.
• Dependent variable
o Measured variable that is
expected to be influenced
by the experimental
manipulation.
• Hypothesis suggest that the
manipulated independent
variable or variable will cause
changes in the measured
dependent variables.
42
o Lagi maauna ang
manipulation sa
Independent sa
Dependent.
• Two advantages of the
experimental research design
are
o (a) the assurance that the
independent variable
(also known as the
experimental
manipulations) o
o (B) the creation of the
initial equivalence
between the conditions of
the experiment (in this
case by using random
assignment to conditions).
▪ Bcs of random
assignment mas
less and error
• This eliminates the possibility
of reverse causation.
• The Influence of common-
causal variables is controlled,
and thus eliminated, by creating
initial equivalence among the
participants in each of the
experimental conditions before
the manipulation occurs.
• The most common method of
creating equivalence among the
experimental conditions is
through random assignment to
conditions.
 • Random Assignment to
Conditions
o A procedure in which the
condition that each
participant is assigned to
is determined through a
random process.
• In experiment- you have to make
sure that the two groups simula
palang equivalent na sila. In
terms of the variable that you are
trying to measure.
o Ex. Test yung coffee
consumption of the
participants.
▪ You have to make
sure that they have
the same level of
coffee
consumption.
o Ex. Aggressive play and
viewing a violent tv—
trying to establish that the
viewing of tv is the cause
of an aggressive play
▪ you have to make
sure that they have
the same level of
aggression before
you implement the
viewing violent tv
play.
• In experiment—you have to make
sure the random process and the
equivalence of initial scores.
Unfair kung may laman na isa di
pa nag start yung experiment.
43
• Despite the advantages of
determining causation,
experiment do have limitations.
• One is that they are often
conducted in laboratory
situations rather than in the
everyday lives of people
• External Validity- generalize of
a study to other situations (and
people)
o Population Validity-
Study sample generalize
to a population itself
▪ Ex. 30 students;
makikita mo causal
relationship is it
applicable to
population?
o Ecological Validity- study
can be applied to other
real-world settings
(outside the laboratory)
o Temporal Validity-
results remain accurate
over time.
▪ Baka nung time na
yon don lang
significant. You
have to make sure
na also in the future
it can be use
• Second, and more important, is
that some of the most interesting
and key social variable cannot
be experimentally
manipulated.
• For example, to compare the
personality characteristics of
 people join organizations with o Protection of
those of people who do not join confidentiality of
such organizations, correlational personal information
designs are more appropriate. o Fairness and justice in
the treatment of person
and people
CODE OF ETHICS FOR PHILIPPINES o Respect for the
PSYCHOLOGIST AND PSYCHOMETRICIAN’S environment

• Psychological Association of the Principle 2: Competent Caring for the

Philippines Well-Being of Persons and People
• Committee On Ethics and
• Involves working for their benefit
Professional Standards (2022)
andm above all, doing no harm.
Principle 1: Respect for the Dignity of • Maximizing benefit, minimizing
Person and People potential harm, offsetting or
correcting harm
• Most fundamental and
• Competent caring requires the
universally found ethical
application of knowledge and
principle across
skills that are appropriate for the
• Recognizing the inherent worth
nature of situations, social and
of all human beings regardless
cultural context.
of perceived or real differences
• Adequate self-knowledge
o For the unique work and
knowledge of how one’s values,
inherent dignity of all
experiences, cultures, and social
human beings.
context might influence one’s
o Respect for diversity
actions and interpretations.
among persons and
• Also covers the delivery of
people
psychological services using
o Respect for the custom
online modalities
and belief of cultures
(telepsychology)
(limited when a custom
causes serious harm to • ALL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
the well-being) GOVERNING IN A FACE-TO-
o Privacy for individuals, FACE-SET-UP SHALL BE
family, groups and APPLICABLE FOR SERVICES
communities CONDUCTED VIRTUALLY.

Principle 3- Integrity

44
 • Vital to the advancement of
scientific knowledge and to the
maintenance of public
confidence
• Based on honesty, truthful,
open, and accurate
communications
• Recognizing, monitoring,
reporting, and managing
potential biases, multiple
relationships, and other
conflicts of interest that could
result in harm and exploitation
of person and people
• Complete openness and
disclosure of information must
be balanced with other ethical
considerations.
• Monitoring and management are
needed to ensure the self-
interest does not interfere with
acting in the best interest of
persons and people.
Principle 4- Professional and
Scientific Responsibility to Society
• Contributing to the knowledge
about human behavior and to the
person's understanding of
themselves and others
o The knowledge shall be
used to improve the
condition of individuals,
families, groups,
communities, and society.
o
o
45
• Encouraging the development of
social structures and policies
that benefit all persons and
people
o This should be culturally
appropriate and
consistent with the ethical
principle
General Ethical Standard and
Procedures
• I. How we resolve ethical issues
in our professional lives and
communities
• II. How we adhere to the
highest standards of
professional competence
• III. How we respect for the
rights and dignity of our
supervisees (i.e., clients, peers,
and students) and our other
stakeholders on the
professional and scientific
functions.
• IV. how we maintain
confidentiality in the important
aspects of our professional and
scholarly functions.
• V. how we ensure truthfulness
and accuracy in all our public
statement
• VI. How we observe
professionalism in our records
and fees
1. Resolving Ethical Issues
 • A. Misuse of the Psychology
Professional’s works
o We take appropriate and
reasonable steps to
correct or minimize the
effects of misuse or
misinterpretation
• B. Conflicts Between Ethics
and Law, Regulations or Other
Governing Legal Authority
o If code of ethics conflicts
with the law, regulations
our FIRST STEP is to take
appropriate actions to
resolve the conflicts
while being committed to
our code of Ethics.
o But, if the conflicts cannot
be resolved by such
means, we adhere to the
law, regulations or
governing legal authority
• C. Conflicts between Ethics and
Organizational Demands, we
make our code of ethics known
to the organization
o If code ethics conflicts
with organizational
demands, we make ur
code of ethics known to
the organization
o Declare our commitment
and adherence to this
code when resolving the
conflicts.
o They hire other profession
na mas mura bcs they
46
can’t afford Psychologist
like the
• D. Informal Resolution of
Ethical Violations
o When we become aware
that another psychology
practitioner violated our
al ascode of ethics, we
may resolve the issue by
bringing it to the
attention of the concern
professional
o We
• E. Reporting Ethical Violations
o If there is likely to have
substantial harm to a
person or organization -
> futher action
o D
• F. Cooperating with Ethics
Committee
o Cooperate with ethics
investigation,
proceedings, and required
of any psychological
association we belong to
• G. Improper Complaints
o Refrain from filling
without supporting
factual evidence as well
as coercing people to file
ethical complaints against
another person
• H. Unfair Discrimination Against
Complainant and Respondents
o Do not discriminate
against complainant and
respondednt of ethical
 complaints by denying
them employment,
advancement, admissions
to academic, tenure or
promotion.
2. Competencies
• A. Boundaries of Competence
o As specific in RA 10029
(the Philippine
Psychology Act of 2009)
only RPMs and RPsys are
legally allowed to practice
their profession
o Provide services, teach,
and conduct research with
persons/ populations in
areas only within the
boundaries of our
competence, based on
our education training,
supervised practicum or
internship, consultation,
thorough study, or
professional experience.
o Make appropriate
referrals
o D
o D
o D
o So as not deprive
individuals or groups of
necessary services, for
which we do not have
existing competence, we
may provide the services
as long as
47
▪ We have closely
related prior
training or
experience
▪ We make a
reasonable effor to
obtain the
competence
▪ D
o D
o
• B. Providing Services in
Emergencies
o We shall make our
services available in
emergency situations to
individuals for whom the
necessary mental health
services are not available
to ensure they are not
deprived of the
emergency services they
require at the time
o Proceed cautiously in
providing the necessary
interventation that time,
• D. Bases for Scientific and
Professional Judgement
o We shall base our work
upon established
scientific and
professional knowledge
of the disciplines
• E. Delegation of Work to other
o Avoid delegating such
work have multiple
relationships with those
being served that would
 likely lead to exploitation
or loos of objectivity
o S
o S
o S
• F. Personal Problems and
Conflicts
o Refrain from initiation
an activity when we know
or anticipate that there is
sibstantial likelihood
that out personal
problems will prevent us
from performing
competently
o If we are aware of
personal problems will
prevent
3. Human Relations
• A. Unfair Discrimination
o We shall not
discriminate against
• B.
• C.
• D. Avoid Harm
o Provide reasonable steps
to avoid harming our
clients/patients, students,
supervisees, research,
participants,
organizational clients, and
other with whom we
work. If harm is
unavoidable, we
minimize the harm.
• E. Multiple Relationships
48
o Refrain from entering
into a multiple
relationship IF the
mutiple relationship
could reasonably be
expected to impair our
objectivity, competence,
or effectiveness as RPm/
RPsy or otherwise riskd
esploitation or harm to
the perosn with whom
our professional
relationship exist
o Multiple relationship
occur when a psychology
practitioner is in a
professional role with a
person and at the same
time:
▪ Another role with
the same person
▪ In a relationship
with a person
closely associated
with or related to
the person with
whom the
psychology
pratitioner has the
professional
relationshi
• E. Multiple Relationships
o If however, we shall find
that, due to unforeseen
factors, a potentially
harmful multiple
relationship has
occurred, we shall take
 reasonable steps to
resolve it with regard for
the best interests of the
affected people and
maximum compliance
with the Code of Ethics
o When we shall be
required to by law serve
in more than one role in
judicial or
administrative
proceefings, at
• F. Conflict of Intereset
o Refrain from taking on
professional role when
personal, scientific,
professional, legal,
financial or other interests
or relationship could
reasonably be expected to
▪ Impair our
objectivity,
competence, or
effectiveness in
performing our
functions
▪ Espose the person
or organizatopm
with whom our pr
o Exploitative
Relationships
▪ We shall not
exploit personas
over whom we have
supervisory,
evaluative, or other
authority
49
• I. Cooperation with other
Professionals
o We
• J. Informed consent
o We shall
o To provide protection for
vulnerable persons,
peoples, or groups who
are legally incapable of
giving informed consent,
we shall nevertheless
▪ (a) prove an
appropriate
explanation
▪ (B) seek the
individual
• K. Psychological Services
Delivered to or through
Organizations
o Provice information
beforehand to clients and
when appropriate, to
those directly affected by
services about
▪ Nature and
objectiveness of the
services
• Interruption of Psychological
Services
o Unless otherwise covered
by contract, we shall
make reasonable efforts
to plan for facilitating
services in the event that
psychological
4. Confidentiality
• A. Maintaining Confidentiality
 o Duty to safeguard any
information divulged
by our clients,
regardless of the
medium where it was
stored
o Duty to make sure that
this information is
secured and is not
placed in areas,
spaces, computers, or
gadget that easily
accessible to other
unqualified persons
• B. Liminations Confidentiality
o Discuss the
limitations of
confidentiality to our
client, may be due to
regulated laws,
institutional rules, or
professional or
scientific relationship.
o We explain 5. Advertisement and Public
o F
o F • We make sure that announceents
• B. Limitation of
Confidentiality
o If psychological
services or information
are coursed through
electronic
transmission, it is our
duty to inform the
cleints of risks of
privacy
o F
• D. Recoding • Announce
50
• E. Disclosure
o Ensure that
information to be
• F. Consultation
o Do not discuss with
our colleagues or
other professionals
confidential
information that
could lead to the
identification of the
client.
o If we need 2nd opinio,
we only disclose
information limited to
what is only needed
to achive the purpose
• G. Use of Confidential
information for other
information
o D
Statements
include acceptable and factually
informative material, presented
in a highly professional manner
o Announcement may
include, but are not
limited to, paid or unpaid
advertisement, product
edorsement, grant
applications, lecensing
applications
o Printed matters, pero
 • A. Avoidance of False or
Deceptive statements
o Claim degrees as
credentials for out
psychological services
only, if these degrees were
earned from recognized
educational programs/
instituations or from
accredited foreign
educational programs/
institutions
• B. Public Statements
o We use language that
conveys respect
o We communicate
o We clearly
o Do not seeK
o Do not seek personal
intersent and we retain
o We shall not compensate
or give anything of value to
the representatives of or
employees of the press, in
anticipation of, or in
return for, professional
publicity in news items
o Unless it is a paid
advertisment regarding
services and programs, it
must be ensured that it is
clearly identified and
recognizable
o Do not give degrading and
recognizable
o Do not give degrading
comments about others
51
o We avoid any comparative
denigration o
o Fo not not claim
o Neither
• C. Workshops, Seminary, and
Non-Degree Granting Eduvation
Programs
o Duty to ensure
• D. Media Presentations
o Cautious when we provide
public advice or comment
o Based on pro
6. Record and Fees
• A. Documentation and
Maintenance of Records
o We create records and
data relating to our
professional and scientific
work in order to:
▪ Faci
▪ Allow
▪ Meet
▪ Ensure
▪ Ensure
• B. Confidentiality of records
o Maintain confidentiality
o We use code
o D
• C. Withholding Client Records
o We may not withhold
recrods that are requested
and needed by and for a
client’s emergency
treatment, solely because
payment has not been
received
 • Fees and Financial Arrangement
o We reach
7. Assessment
• A. Bases for Assessment
o Expert opinion we provide
through recommendation,
o Provide expert
• B. Informed Consent in
Assessment
o Gather informed consent
prior to the assessment of
our clients excepts
▪ When it is
mandated by the
law
▪ When it is implied
▪ When the purpose
o Education
o If third party
o In teleassessment, we
inform test takers of the
aplications of poor info
• C. Assessment Tools
o Select and administer only
those test which are
pertinent to the reasons
for referral and purpose of
the assessment
o Use data collection,
methods and procedures,
that are consistent with
current scientific and
professional
developments
o Use test
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• D. Obsolete and outdated Test
Results
o Do not base
interpretations,
conclusions, and
recommendations on
OUTDATED TEST
RESULTS
o Do not provide
interpretation
• E. Interpreting Assessment
• F. Release of Test Data
o Ensure the test results and
interpretation are not use
by perosn other than
• G. Explaining Assessment
Results
o Release test results only
to the source of referaal
• H. Test Security
o Administration and
handling of all test
materials shall be handled
by qualified/licensed
users or personnel
• I. Assessment by Unqualified
Persons
o Do not promote the use of
assessment tools and
methods by unqualifies
persons EXCEPT for
training purposes with
adequate supervision
o Ensure
• J. Test Construction
o Develop tests and other
assessment tools using
 current scientific findings
and knowledge,
appropriate psychometric
properties, validation, and
standardization
procedures.

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