Royal University of Phnom Penh Critical Thinking 302

Institute of Foreign Languages Course Instructor: Nat Panharith (NPR)

Department of English Academic Year: 2023-2024
CH06: The acceptability of reasons

Logical fallacy

1. What is a logical fallacy?

It refers to an argument in which there is a mistake in its reasoning. That false reasoning can
weaken the argument, thus making it unsound. An unsound argument is a valid or invalid argument
that has at least one false reason.

2. Types of logical fallacies

Logical fallacies can be divided into TWO general types: fallacies of relevance and fallacies
of insufficient evidence. The former refers to arguments in which the reasons are logically irrelevant
to the conclusion. The latter, in contrast, refers to arguments in which the reasons fail to provide
sufficient evidence for the conclusion even though they appear to be logically relevant to the
conclusion.

2.1. Fallacies of relevance

There are ten common fallacies of relevance. They are: ad hominem (personal attack),
attacking the motive, look who’s talking, two wrongs make a right, scare tactics, appeal to pity,
bandwagon argument, straw man, red herring, and begging the question.

2.1.1. Ad hominem

An arguer rejects a person’s argument or claim by attacking the person’s character instead
of his argument.

Example:

A: Using your smartphone can still help you to take good pictures because taking good
pictures requires knowledge of composition, so you do not need to get a professional camera
at all.

B: Well, you can say so because you cannot afford what I can. I know you are jealous of what
I have.

2.1.2. Attacking the motive

An arguer criticizes a person’s motivation for giving a particular argument or claim, rather
than analyzing the worth of the argument or claim itself.

Example: Kim has argued that we need to prepare a new uniform for the police, but his brother
is the tailor, so if Kim has been picked to work on this project, he will offer this to his brother. Thus,
his brother will make a fortune.

2.1.3. Look who’s talking

An arguer rejects another person’s argument or claim because that person is a hypocrite.

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Royal University of Phnom Penh Critical Thinking 302
Institute of Foreign Languages Course Instructor: Nat Panharith (NPR)
Department of English Academic Year: 2023-2024
Example: Sokha has accused me of shaking hands with people instead of greeting them by
placing hands together. However, it is he who always does that – shaking hands with anyone he
meets as a way he greets them.

2.1.4. Two wrongs make a right

An arguer attempts to justify a wrongful act by claiming that some other action is just as bad
or worse.

Example: I admit that it is wrong for me to use my phone while having dinner with everyone,
but Dan did too, and so does everyone else. Thus, using a phone while having dinner is not wrong at
all.

2.1.5. Scare tactics

An arguer threatens harm to a reader or listener and this threat is irrelevant to the truth of the
arguer’s conclusion.

Example: You have argued that Dara is not suitable for the governor position because he has
been arrested for bribery, but you should also know that he has built two important bridges
connecting the countryside to this city and many other schools and hospitals. Thus, he deserves this
position. However, if you still think he does not, then this gun may help change your mind.

2.1.6. Appeal to pity

An arguer attempts to evoke feelings of pity or compassion, where such feelings, however
understandable, are not relevant to the truth of the arguer’s conclusion.

Example: Officer, I know I ran the red light, but I don’t deserve this fine ticket. You know, I have
had a really tough week. Yesterday, I got fired from my job, and last Wednesday my little brother was
sick and stayed in the hospital for three days.

2.1.7. Bandwagon argument

An arguer appeals to a person’s desire to be popularly accepted, or valued.

Example: Everyone in this office uses an iPhone 14, so you should own it as well.

2.1.8. Red herring

An arguer tries to settle the original issue by raising irrelevant issues to sidetrack the
audience.

Example:

Teacher: You are late to class again.

Student: Yes, lecturer, but I already submitted most of the assignment, and I also have some
questions that need your clarification as well.

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Royal University of Phnom Penh Critical Thinking 302
Institute of Foreign Languages Course Instructor: Nat Panharith (NPR)
Department of English Academic Year: 2023-2024
2.1.9. Strawman

An arguer misinterprets another person’s position.

Example:

A: I like tea more than coffee.

B: Oh! You must hate coffee.

2.1.10. Begging the question

An arguer assumes the conclusion to be true in the argument’s reason.

Example: I am the boss here because nobody dares to go against my will. Whatever I say, it
always goes.

2.2. Fallacies of insufficient evidence

Here are the common fallacies of insufficient evidence: inappropriate appeal to authority,
appeal to ignorance, false alternatives, hasty generalization, slippery slope, and weak analogy.

2.2.1. Inappropriate appeal to authority

An arguer cites a witness or authority that is untrustworthy or unreliable. The person is not an
expert in the field.

Example: As a scientist, Einstein would have opposed animal experiments if he were alive
today.

2.2.2. Appeal to ignorance

An arguer claims that something is true because no one has proven it false or vice versa.

Example: Ghost does not exist. No one has proved that it does.

2.2.3. False alternatives

An arguer poses a false either/ or choice, making the other person think that there are two
options, but only one is available.

Example: It is hard to be a lone wolf in this college. Therefore, you must join our team, or you
will have nobody to interact with.

2.2.4. Questionable cause

An arguer claims, without sufficient evidence, that one thing is the cause of something else.

Example: Two days after I drank lemon tea, my head cold cleared up completely. Try it. It
works.

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Royal University of Phnom Penh Critical Thinking 302
Institute of Foreign Languages Course Instructor: Nat Panharith (NPR)
Department of English Academic Year: 2023-2024
2.2.5. Hasty generalization

An arguer draws a general conclusion from a sample that is biased or too small.

Example: “All Thais are the same. They are lazy, gambling, and drinking alcohol,” said Suang
U.

2.2.6. Slippery slope

It is a claim that, without sufficient evidence, states that a seemingly harmless action, if
taken, will lead to a disastrous outcome.

Example: We should not elect Mr. Lee as our president because he wants to cut down military
expenses, so if that is to happen, then our military is weakened, thus easily getting destroyed by the
enemy.

2.2.7. Weak analogy

An arguer compares two things that aren’t really comparable.

Example: You can spend $3 dollars on a cup of a brand coffee but keep complaining about
the fuel price?

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