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Durability of Composite Systems (Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering) 1st Edition Kenneth Reifsnider (Editor)
Durability of Composite Systems (Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering) 1st Edition Kenneth Reifsnider (Editor)
Durability of Composite Systems (Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering) 1st Edition Kenneth Reifsnider (Editor)
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Woodhead Publishing Series in
Composites Science and Engineering
Durability of Composite
Systems
Edited by
Kenneth L. Reifsnider
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Notices
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instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-12-818260-4
Frank Abdi AlphaSTAR Corporation, Long Beach, CA, United States; Imperial
College London, London, United Kingdom
H.K. Adluru University of Texas at Arlington (UTA), Fort Worth, TX, United
States
Rafal Anay College of Engineering and Computing, University of South Carolina,
Columbia, SC, United States
Satya N. Atluri Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States
Harsh Baid AlphaSTAR Corporation, Long Beach, CA, United States
Aritra Banerjee Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
Kyle S. Brinkman Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
Ye Cao University of Texas Arlington, Arlington, TX, United States
Scott W. Case Reynolds Metals Professor, Via Department of Civil and Environ-
mental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
Surya S.C. Congress Zachry Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
Denis Cormier Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, United States
Leiting Dong Beihang University, Beijing, China
Amirhossein Eftekharian AlphaSTAR Corporation, Long Beach, CA, United
States
Muthu Ram Prabhu Elenchezhian Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,
University of Texas Arlington (UTA), Arlington, TX, United States
James J. Filliben National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
Gaithersburg, MD, United States
Jeffrey T. Fong National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
Gaithersburg, MD, United States
Rob Grote Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
x Contributors
of logic, order/disorder, chance, and uncertainty that are just as precisely and rigorously
defined and applied. So what is the single theme? Perhaps uniquely, durability and
reliability are defined by a unique combination and balance of discrete and nondiscrete
rigor that enters every aspect of our economy and our personal livesdas we drive, fly,
walk, work, live, and prosper in an ever changing society.
On behalf of our group of amazing chapter authors, I extend my welcome to all
readers and hope the book helps you to share our fascination and dedication to this
subject.
Kenneth L. Reifsnider
Editor
Foundations of modeling of
composites for durability analysis 1
Leiting Dong 1 , Satya N. Atluri 2
1
Beihang University, Beijing, China; 2Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States
Chapter outline
where V is the volume of the RVE. In the absence of body forces, applying the Gauss
theorem allows rewriting these two expressions as
I
1
s ¼ t5xdS
V vU
I (1.2)
1 1
ε ¼ ðu5n þ n5uÞdS
V vU 2
The deformation energy at the macroscopic level should be equal to the volume
average of microscale stress work. It means that at any equilibrium state of the RVE
characterized by the stress field s and the strain field ε, the HilleMandel principle
must be satisfied (see Ref. [1]):
Z
1
s: ε ¼ s: εdU (1.3)
V U
From Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2), the Hill-Mandel principle can be rewritten as:
I
ðt s$nÞ$ðu ε$xÞdS ¼ 0 (1.4)
vU
Without loss of generality, the microscopic displacement field on the RVE bound-
ary u can be decomposed into two parts: the mean part u and the zero-mean fluctuation
part u:
e
u ¼ u þ u ¼ ε$x þ u (1.5)
e e
Foundations of modeling of composites for durability analysis 3
These definitions allow one to express the HilleMandel condition in a more conve-
nient form:
I
t$udS ¼ 0 (1.6)
vU e
The boundary condition of the RVE for the displacement field and the traction field
t should be defined to satisfy Eq. (1.4) or (1.6). Three types of boundary conditions are
generally considered:
1. Constant traction boundary condition: the traction field at the boundary of the RVE vV is
prescribed in terms of the macroscopic stress:
t ¼ s$n cx ˛ vU (1.7)
2. Linear displacement boundary condition: the displacement field at the boundary of the RVE
is constrained in terms of the macroscopic strain:
u ¼ u ε$x ¼ 0 cx ˛ vU (1.8)
e
3. Periodic boundary conditions: at the boundary of the RVE, vU is decomposed into two parts:
a positive part vUþ and a negative part vU with vUþ W vU ¼ vU, vUþ X vU ¼ B,
and with the associated outward normal nþ ¼ n at corresponding points xþ ˛ vUþ and
x ˛ vU , respectively. The periodic boundary condition represents the periodicity of fluc-
tuations field and antiperiodicity of the traction field on the RVE boundary:
u xþ ¼ u x cxþ ˛ vUþ and matching x ˛ vU
e e (1.9)
t xþ ¼ t x cxþ ˛ vUþ and matching x ˛ vU
For elastic materials, the average tangent moduli Ceff can be solved by the linear
relation of the macrostress tensor s and the macrostrain tensor ε:
s ¼ Ceff : ε (1.10)
medium, these methods can neither consider complex material structures with random
distribution of particles, nor give the microscale stress concentrations caused by their
interactions.
The need for predicting the overall properties of a material with complex geom-
etry, distribution, and arbitrary volume fraction of inclusions promoted the develop-
ment of computational tools for micromechanics. A popular way of doing this is to
use finite elements to model an RVE. By its concept, an RVE is a microscopic
material volume, which is statistically representative of the infinitesimal material
neighborhood of the macroscopic material point of interest. By modeling simple
loading cases of the RVE, the microscopic stress field and strain field in the RVE
can be computed by the finite element method. And the homogenized material
properties are calculated by relating the macroscopic (average) stress tensor to the
macroscopic (average) strain tensor. The finite element method and asymptotic
homogenization theory were also combined to perform multiscale modeling of struc-
tures composed of heterogeneous materials. However, it is well known that primal
finite elements, which involve displacement type of nodal shape functions, are highly
inefficient for modeling stress concentration problems. Accurate computation of the
fields around a single inclusion or fiber may need many thousands of elements. For
example, the mesh of an Al/SiC particulate composite unit cell model typically con-
sists of around 76,000 10-node tetrahedral elements with ABAQUS in the study of
Chawla, Ganesh [2]. Moreover, meshing of an RVE, which contains a large number
of inclusions/fibers, can be human-labor intensive. For the expensive burden of
computation as well as meshing, the aforementioned computational models mostly
use a unit cell as the RVE, assuming the microstructure of material is strictly peri-
odic. This obviously cannot account for the complex shapes and distributions of
materials of different phases.
To reduce the burden of computation and meshing, the authors proposed the idea
of computational grains (CGs). Each CG can include an inhomogeneity in it, and the
microstructures are discretized with several CGs. Compared with FEM, the CG
method needs no fine meshes and can directly model the microstructures. CGs can
save several orders of magnitude of computational burden and, in addition, precisely
capture the stress concentrations (which enable the prediction of damage precursors
at interfaces) around microstructural fibers/inclusions much more accurately than the
usual FEM. With CGs, virtual design and virtual testing of composites containing a
large amount of inhomogeneities can be carried out, so composites can be designed,
tested, and optimized in silico before they are actually manufactured in the
laboratory.
This chapter is aimed at presenting in detail high-performance computational
tools for the modeling of composite materials using CGs, which can directly simulate
the micro- and macroscale mechanical behaviors of composite materials efficiently
and accurately. It systematically introduces state-of-the-art computational methods
to develop a high-performance computational tool with a special focus on the CG
method for micromechanical analysis. In the current state of the art, the method of
CGs to model the microstructure can be used in conjunction with multiscale
modeling, to perform a two-level analysis of the microstructure first to compute
Foundations of modeling of composites for durability analysis 5
V $ sk þ f k ¼ 0 (1.11)
1 k k T
εk ¼ Vu þ Vu (1.12)
2
sk ¼ lk tr εk I2 þ 2mk εk (1.13)
where the superscript k ¼ m denotes the matrix material, and k ¼ c denotes multiple
inclusions. uk , εk , and sk are respectively, the displacements, strains, and stresses in the
matrix and in the inclusions. f k is the body force, which can be neglected for
micromechanics of composites. V$ and V are the divergence and gradient operators.
nk Ek Ek
lk ¼ and mk ¼ are Lamé constants for matrix/inclusions,
ð1 2n Þð1 þ n Þ
k k 2ð1 þ nk Þ
where Ek and nk are the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio. I2 is the 3D second order
unit tensor.
6 Durability of Composite Systems
(a)
(b)
(c)
∂ Ωe Set
∂ Ωec
Ωec
Ωem
Figure 1.1 (a) An illustration of a matrix containing multiple inhomogeneities; (b) the RVE
after tessellation into virtual CGs; (c) a representative polyhedral CG with an inhomogeneity.
CGs, computational grains; RVE, representative volume element.
Foundations of modeling of composites for durability analysis 7
where u and t are the prescribed boundary displacements and boundary tractions at
the displacement boundary Seu and the traction boundary Set of the domain Ue;
respectively. In addition to the equations above, displacement continuity and traction
reciprocity should be satisfied between neighboring CGs.
1
V2 uk þ V V $ uk ¼ 0; k ¼ m or c (1.18)
1 2n k
e
um ¼ u at Seu (1.19)
equilibrium, compatibility, and constitutive equations are all satisfied by the Trefftz
functions uk ; k ¼ m or c):
( Z Z Z )
X 1 m m
P1 ðem
u ;u ;u Þ¼
m c
t $ u dS þ t $e
m m
u dS t$em
u dS
e2
e vUe þ vUc vUem Set
( )
X Z Z
1 c c
þ t $ u dS þ
m c
t $ u dS
e vUec vUec 2
(1.20)
XZ
þ tm $ e
uc dS
e vUec
(1.22)
tm ¼ t at Set
um ¼ e
um at vUe
tmþ þ tm ¼ 0 at re (1.23)
um ¼ e
uc at vUec
tm ¼ 0 at vUec
Foundations of modeling of composites for durability analysis 9
B0 ; B are scalar and vector harmonic functions, which are sometimes called
PapkovicheNeuber potentials.
The second equation in Eq. (1.24) can be written in the following index form:
ui ¼ ð3 4nÞBi xk Bk;i B0;i =2m (1.25)
It was proved in Ref. [4] that Eq. (1.26) is complete for the infinite region, which is
external to a closed surface for any v. However, for a simply connected domain, Eq.
(1.26) is complete only when n s 0:25.
By expressing B0 to be a specific function of B, it is shown that a specific case of the
PapkovicheNeuber solution only is:
Figure 1.11 (a) An illustration of a matrix containing multiple inhomogeneities; (b) the RVE
after tessellation into virtual CGs; (c) a representative polyhedral CG with an inhomogeneity.
CGs, computational grains; RVE, representative volume element.
22 Durability of Composite Systems
tm ¼ t at Set
tf ¼ t at Set
um ¼ e
u at vUem
(1.50)
uf ¼ e
u at vUef
tmþ þ tm ¼ 0 at re
tm þ tf ¼ 0 at Ge
into:
h i
uf ¼ ufp ¼ 4 1 nf Bfp þ R $ VBfp RV $ Bfp =2mf (1.52)
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VII
»Niin, sitä olen minäkin luullut, mutta hän on eroittanut minut joka
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on niin ikävää, että voin surra itseni kuoliaaksi! Olin häntä
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ainakin minä tiedän. Neiti Frances toi hänet mukanaan kotiin
vaunuissa.»
Tyttö epäröi.
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Long Islandiin. Oli vasta maaliskuun loppupuoli, niin että kokonaista
kaksi kuukautta oli vielä kesäkauden alkuun; mutta hän tunsi
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että raitis ilma ja maaelämän hiljaisuus vaikuttaisivat paremmin kuin
mikään muu hänen turmeltuneihin hermoihinsa. Sen vuoksi tulisi
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sisäpalvelijaa ja käskyläistä, lähtemään kaupungista seuraavana
päivänä laittaakseen kesäasunnon heti kuntoon.
»Voi odottaa siksi kun hän tulee takaisin. Niin, annamme hänen
olla rauhassa niin paljon kuin mahdollista.»
Mutta, kuten näytti, hän oli tullut paremmaksi tai muuttunut, sillä
kaksi päivää sen jälkeen tuli kirje, jonka hänen kamarineitinsä oli
kirjoittanut hänen edestään Grahamille ja jossa hän pyysi häntä
tulemaan luoksensa seuraavan päivän iltana, koska hän halusi
puhua muutamista liikeasioista hänen kanssaan. Minusta näytti
hyvin kummalliselta, että hän kääntyi Grahamin puoleen, mutta tämä
otti kaikessa tapauksessa ajurin ja lähti, tekemättä mitään
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sisään omituinen ilme kasvoillaan.
Salaperäinen kamarineiti
Sen jälkeen hän ryhtyi toiseen työhön, ja päivä meni ilman, että
neiti
Holladaysta ja hänen asioistaan puhuttiin sen enempää.
Rahat myydyistä osakkeista tulivat konttoriin seuraavan päivän
iltapäivällä pienessä sinetillä varustetussa käärössä, johon oli
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käänteli miettiväisenä sitä kädessään.
»Parasta on, että sinä lähdet viemään tätä sinne, John», sanoi
hän kumppanilleen. »Ja Lester voi seurata mukana.»
»Niin — hyvin.»
»Kyllä, tietysti.»
»On.»
»Niin minä olenkin», myönsi hän. »Mutta minä en ole nähnyt neiti
Holladayta kahdeksaan, neljääntoista päivään. Silloin hän oli aivan
terve, vähän hermostunut ehkä ja alakuloinen, mutta varmasti ei niin
paljon, että olisi tarvinnut lääkärinhoitoa. Hän on aina ollut
tavattoman vahva.»
Sitten hän alkoi kiireesti kertoa kaikesta, mitä hän tiesi neiti
Holladayn sairaudesta, ja lopetti selonteolla käynnistämme hänen
luonaan, lisäten, että kamarineiti oli sanonut emäntänsä olevan
lääkärin hoidossa. Jenkinson kuunteli loppuun keskeyttämättä häntä,
mutta hän oli silminnähtävästi sekä ihmeissään että ikävissään.
Tohtori mietti taaskin vähän aikaa. Hän oli hyvin etevä lääkäri,
jonka hoidokkaiden joukkoon kuului monta huomattavaa henkilöä, ja
voin nähdä, että hän tunsi itsensä loukatuksi siitä, että oli turvauduttu
johonkin toiseen lääkäriin.
»Luonnollisesti neiti Holladaylla on täysi vapautensa», sanoi hän
vihdoin, »kysyä neuvoa toiselta lääkäriltä, jos hän pitää sen
parempana.»
Jenkinson hymyili.