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Dust Explosion and Fire Prevention Handbook A Guide To Good Industry Practices 1st Edition Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff
Dust Explosion and Fire Prevention Handbook A Guide To Good Industry Practices 1st Edition Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff
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Dust Explosion and Fire Prevention
Handbook
Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Dust Explosion and Fire
Prevention Handbook
A Guide to Good Industry Practices
Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem,
Massachusetts.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
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ISBN 978-1-118-77350-5
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
1 Combustible Dusts 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Metrics 3
1.3 Size and Shape 6
1.4 Size Distribution 9
1.4.1 Weighted Distributions 10
1.4.2 Number Weighted Distributions 10
1.4.3 Volume Weighted Distributions 11
1.4.4 Intensity Weighted Distributions 11
1.4.5 Size Distribution Statistics 11
1.5 Why Some Dusts are Combustible 14
1.6 Common Causes of Dust Explosions and Risk Mitigation 16
1.6.1 General 16
1.6.2 Explosion Hazard Zones Classification 20
1.7 Closing Remarks and Definitions 21
v
vi Contents
Index 357
About the Author
xi
Preface
xiii
xiv Preface
When all of these factors are present, a dust explosion can occur.
Eliminating just one of these requirements would make a dust explosion
very unlikely. This then is the overall objective of the volume – to examine
the causes of dust explosions and to provide readers with an overall under-
standing of good industry practices to prevent such events from occurring.
Explosions are defined as sudden reactions involving a rapid physical or
chemical oxidation reaction, or decay generating an increase in tempera-
ture or pressure, or both simultaneously. When the flame speed exceeds
the speed of sound, the event is referred to as a detonation. Otherwise, the
explosion is known as a deflagration. Detonations are much more destruc-
tive than deflagrations. Typically, dust explosions are relatively slow com-
bustion processes. If ignition occurs in a dust cloud in an open area, then
little or no overpressure results and the primary hazard is a fireball. But
if a deflagration occurs in a confined space such as a piece of equipment
or constricted ductwork or tubes, the results may be devastating, causing
substantial damage to operations, injury to operating personnel and even
fatalities. The reader will find a number of case studies documented in this
volume which testify to the devastating results of industrial dust explosions.
The volume begins with a glossary of terms that are commonly applied
to the safe handling of dusts as they relate to fire and explosion issues. The
reader may wish to spend a few moments familiarizing him or herself with
some of the terms if this subject is relatively new to them.
10 Dust Explosion and Fire Prevention Handbook
• Weighted distributions
• Number weighted distributions
• Volume weighted distributions
• Intensity weighted distributions
FOOTNOTES
[1190] Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. ii., lib. i. cap. xx., places this incident on the third
day of entry into the city.
[1191] ‘Todos los mas principales y esforzados y valientes.’ Cortés, Cartas, 244.
And 2000 captives. Ixtlilxochitl, Hor. Crueldades, 43. ‘Tuuieron bien q̄ cenar
aquella noche los Indios nuestros amigos,’ observes Gomara, unctuously. Hist.
Mex., 209. Bernal Diaz, who claims to have been among the 100 select, intimates
that Alvarado also formed an ambuscade that day, though less effective. Hist.
Verdad., 153-4. In rushing from the hiding-place, says Cortés, two horses collided,
one of them throwing its rider and charging alone amid the foe. After receiving
several wounds it sought refuge among the soldiers and was conducted to camp,
where it died.
[1192] ‘Fué bien principal causa para que la ciudad mas presto se ganase,’
Cortés, Cartas, 245, but this must be regarded as an exaggerated estimate.
[1193] Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. ii. Torquemada, i. 560, 564, wavers, intimating in
one place that all were determined to die. When the people at last inclined to
peace, says Gomara, Quauhtemotzin opposed it on the ground that they had once
decided for war, ‘contra su voluntad y consejo.’ Hist. Mex., 213. Most of the
revelation was made by a woman of rank, it appears. Carried away by his love for
hero-painting, Prescott has either missed or ignored the facts which now reveal his
false coloring.
[1194] ‘Y asi escondidas huvo algunos Principales de las Provincias cercanas que
acudieron con algun maiz para solo llevar joyas.’ That is, where the cruisers
allowed such smuggling. Duran, Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 497.
[1195] About 1000 were killed, says Ixtlilxochitl, Hor. Crueldades, 44; but Cortés
puts the killed and captured at more than 800. Cartas, 245.
[1196] ‘Osauan nuestros vergantines romper las estacadas ... remauan con gran
fuerça y ... a todas velas.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 150.
[1197] ‘De la Capitana, que èl havia salvado,’ says Herrera, while asserting that
the captain Villafuerte abandoned her; but this hardly agrees with his own later
statements that Villafuerte remained in charge of the fleet, dec. iii. lib. i. cap. xxi.;
lib. ii. cap. viii. The slain leader is called the lieutenant-general of Quauhtemotzin,
and his death ‘fue causa, que mas presto se ganase la Ciudad,’ Torquemada, i.
558, all of which is doubtful. A similar reward to that of Lopez was accorded on
another occasion to a soldier named Andrés Nuñez, who after the captain had
abandoned his vessel led her to the rescue of two consorts. When the commander
came to resume his post Nuñez refused to admit him, saying that he had forfeited
it. On being appealed to, Cortés sustained the brave fellow and gave him the
command, in which capacity he rendered important service. Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii.
cap. i.
[1198] July 25th, according to Clavigero, while Torquemada less correctly makes it
August 5th.
[1201] At the corner of the street leading to Sandoval’s quarter. Id., 247.
[1202] I knew three of them, writes Bernal Diaz. ‘Las enterramos en vna Iglesia,
que se dize aora los Mártires.’ Hist. Verdad., 153.
[1203] For a full description see Native Races, ii. 382 et seq.
[1204] Cortés saw the smoke from his camp, from which he was preparing to start.
Cartas, 247. Herrera leaves the impression that Alférez Montaño captured the
temple, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. i., but he was probably only the first to step on the
summit. Bernal Diaz, who fought under Alvarado, states distinctly that Badajoz led
the party, but he is no doubt incorrect in adding that the fight on the top continued
till night. Hist. Verdad., 153. Torquemada, i. 565, refers to the temple as the
Acatliyacapan. Duran makes Cortés appeal to the Chalcans, and they ‘tomando la
delantera del Ejército, y con ellos Yxtlilxachitl ... ganaron el Cue grande.’ Hist. Ind.,
MS., ii. 506. This must be a Chalcan version.
[1205] Gomara, Hist. Mex., 210. Cortés calls them wounded merely. Sahagun’s
native version of the plaza fight is very confusing, and mixed with that of the
struggle against the other divisions, ‘y tomaron los bergantines [two] á los
españoles, y lleváronlos á una laguna que llaman Amanalco.’ Hist. Conq. (ed.
1840), 202-3. But this must be a mistake.
[1207] This or a third relic bore the name of Mamalhuaztli. Sahagun also refers to
a divine bow and arrow. Hist. Conq., 53-4. But his editions vary in text; see that of
1840, 210-12. The serpent was invoked even after the conquest, says the pious
friar, and he heard Father Tembleque relate that he one day opened his window
during a storm and had his left eye injured by a ray of lightning, which damaged
the house and adjoining church. This ray, the Mexicans assured him, was the
Xiuhcoatl, conjured up by the sorcerers, for they had seen it issue in the form of a
big snake through the door. The editor Bustamante tells an equally impressive
story in connection with an attempt to account for the snake and lightning.
[1208] One being killed and two horses wounded. Bernal Diaz, loc. cit.
[1209] Sahagun, Hist. Conq. (ed. 1840), 213. The editor Bustamante speaks of a
similar phenomenon in Michoacan in 1829. Id. (ed. 1829), 68.
[1210] ‘De los niños no quedó nadie, que las mismas madres y padres los
comian,’ is the statement of the native records. Id., 210. Yet Torquemada, i. 572,
assumes that the Mexicans would not eat of their own race. Thousands had
already died of starvation without touching the flesh of countrymen, though priests
partook of children sacrificed during ordinary festivals; but at last the scruple
among the masses was overcome by despair. See Native Races, ii. passim.
[1212] The chroniclers call him an uncle of the Tezcucan king, but this appears to
be a misinterpretation of Cortés’ text, wherein he says that such an uncle had
captured the prisoner.
[1213] Cortés, Cartas, 251. This was partly in accordance with the law against
nobles who returned from captivity, as already instanced.
[1214] ‘Tenia mucho miedo de parecer ante mí, y tambien estaba malo.’ Cortés,
Cartas, 253. ‘Empacho,’ explains Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. vii. He feared to be
shot. Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 164.
[1215] ‘Ni tenian ni hallaban flechas ni varas ni piedras con que nos ofender.... No
tenian paso por donde andar sino por encima de los muertos y por las azoteas.’
Cortés, Cartas, 254.
[1216] ‘Mataron y prendieron mas de cuarenta mil ánimas.’ Id. Ixtlilxochitl, Hor.
Crueldades, 48, raises the number to 50,000, while Duran states that over 40,000
men and women perished while fleeing. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 510. What pained the
conquerors most, however, was the sight and knowledge of what immense
quantity of booty eluded them to pass into the hands of these marauders.
[1218] Chimalpain calls him Tlacotzin, afterward baptized as Juan Velasquez. Hist.
Conq., ii. 71. ‘Ciguacoacin, y era el Capitan y gobernador de todos ellos, é por su
consejo se seguian todas las cosas de la guerra,’ says Cortés, Cartas, 255.
[1219] ‘Porque les queria combatir y acabar de matar.’ Cartas, 256. ‘Pues eran
barbaros, que no queria dexar hombre vivo, q̄ se fuessen.’ Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii.
cap. vii.
[1220] The distinguished captive said: ‘Capitan señor, dáte buena maña, que
aquellos indios ... son esclavos de Guatimuçin, é podrá ser quél va allí huyendo,
porque su bandera ya no paresçe.’ Oviedo, iii. 516. A canoe of twenty rowers and
bearing a number of people. Gomara, Hist. Conq., 212. See also Vetancvrt, Teatro
Mex., pt. iii. 164; Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 230. A small canoe, says Duran.
[1223] The versions of this remarkable speech vary greatly. ‘Habia hecho todo lo
que de su parte era obligado para defenderse á si y á los suyos hasta venir en
aquel estado, que ahora ficiese dél lo que yo quisiese.’ Cortés, Cartas, 257.
‘Diçiéndole que le diesse de puñaladas é lo matasse, porque no era raçon que
viviesse en el mundo hombre que avia perdido lo que’l avia perdido,’ adds Oviedo,
iii. 422. ‘Preguntáronle por los chripstianos, é dixo: No me preguntés esso; é si me
quereys matar; matadme ya: que harto estoy de vivir,’ says another version. Id.,
517. ‘Iria mui consolado adonde sus dioses estaban, especialmente haviendo
muerto à manos de tal Capitan.’ Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. vii. ‘Why so stubborn?’
is the way Duran opens the conversation on Cortés’ part. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 509.
‘Toglietemi con questo pugnale una vita, che non perdei nella difesa del mio
Regno.’ Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 230. See also Ixtlilxochitl and others. Writers
generally go into ecstacy over this utterance. ‘Magnanimo,’ exclaims Peter Martyr,
dec. v. cap. viii. ‘Heroic,’ ejaculates Bustamante in support of Chimalpain’s
encomium. Hist. Conq., ii. 75. ‘Ce trait est digne du plus beau temps de la Grèce
et de Rome.’ Humboldt, Essai Pol., i. 193. ‘A spirit worthy of an ancient Roman,’
echoes Prescott, Mex., iii. 206. Bernal Diaz says the emperor wept, and with him
his chiefs. Hist. Verdad., 155.
[1224] Made a few years later by order of the city council. It was not, as many
suppose, the original standard, for this was hidden during two centuries among
rubbish in the university, as stated in its records. It now exists in the museum,
forming a piece about a yard square, which shows on one side the Virgin of the
Immaculate Conception with hands joined in prayer, and bearing on her head a
crown of gold surrounded by a halo and a circle of stars; on the other are the royal
arms. Boturini, Idea, 157. In his Catálogo, 75, this author assumes it to be the
standard given to the Tlascaltecs, but Carbajal states that at Tlascala exists
another standard of Cortés’, with royal arms, Hist. Mex., ii. 637, with a picture of
the above named virgin. See also Beaumont, Crón. Mich., ii. 345-6. By order of
July 31, 1528, the city council orders bull-fights and other entertainments in honor
of the day, ‘e q todos cabalguen los q tovieren bestias.’ Libro de Cabildo, MS.,
127, 234. Mexicans are never seen to share in the procession. ‘Tan profundo está
en sus ánimos la herida.’ Cavo, Tres Siglos, i. 3; Humboldt, Essai Pol., i. 192. A
minute account of the ceremonies on the occasion is given in Monumentos Hist.
Admin. Colon., MS., 365, copied from the Archivo General.
[1225] Counting from May 30th, Cartas, 257, and so it is stated in the grant to
Cortés of Escudo de Armas. Duran and Ixtlilxochitl extend it to 80 and Bernal Diaz
to 93 days. ‘Despues de muchos combates, y mas de sessenta peleas
peligrosisimas.’ Acosta, Hist. Nat. Ind., 525.
[1226] Over 60 soldiers were lost in the great defeat, and small numbers now and
then, while the auxiliaries, less skilled in fighting and chiefly unarmored,
succumbed in hordes. Gomara says about 50 soldiers, 6 horses, and not many
Indians; Herrera modifies to ‘a little over’ 50; Torquemada advances to ‘less than
100,’ and Clavigero to ‘more than 100 Spaniards.’ Hernandez, in his Estadist.
Méj., 232, computes such curiously exact figures as 107 Spaniards, 18,915
Tlascaltecs, and 33,240 Aztecs. Ixtlilxochitl, ever eager to enlarge upon the
services of his race, claims that 30,000 Tezcucans fell out of 200,000 employed,
Hor. Crueldades, 51; but this is evidently exaggerated.
[1227] ‘En que murieron infinitos.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 213; Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii.
cap. viii.; Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 232-3. Bustamante raises the number killed
to ‘150,000 at least.’ Chimalpain, Hist. Conq., ii. 74; Ixtlilxochitl, loc. cit., to
240,000, including most of the nobles; while Torquemada, i. 577, observes ‘que de
veinte partes, no quedò vna, aviendo perecido, y muerto las diez y nueve,’ he and
several others allowing the estimate of fully 300,000 inhabitants. The survivors are
estimated at from 30,000 persons, by Torquemada to 70,000 warriors by Oviedo,
iii. 516.
[1228] ‘Hiço herrar algunos Hombres, y Mugeres por Esclavos; à todos los demàs
dexò en libertad.’ Torquemada, 573. ‘À muchos indios é indias, porque estaban
dados por traydores,’ says Oviedo, iii. 517. Cortés stayed and punished those who
took slaves, ‘aunque todavia herraron en la cara á algunos mancebos y mugeres.’
So states the native record of Sahagun, Hist. Conq. (ed. 1840), 231. But if he
punished slave-takers it was for not declaring the capture to the royal official.
Duran reduces his account of Spanish liberality to an absurdity, but more from
politic reasons than because he had not at hand better evidence, Hist. Ind., MS., ii.
510.
[1229] Hist. Verdad., 156. ‘Io sospetto, che da’ Messicani lasciati fossero a bella
posta insepolti i cadaveri, per iscacciar colla puzza gli Assediatori.’ Clavigero,
Storia Mess., iii. 231. But this is unlikely. A severe siege will produce such results.
[1230] Bernal Diaz relates that although wine and provisions from Cuba were
abundantly dispensed at the banquet, yet there was not room for one third of the
soldiers, and much discontent grew out of it, partly from the utterances of drunken
men. A dance followed. Father Olmedo complained of so much revelry before the
rendering of due thanks to God. Cortés pleaded that soldiers must be allowed
some license, but the following day was set apart for religious services. Hist.
Verdad., 156.
[1232] ‘Non dubitamus quin justa sint bella ... in eos qui humanam carnem
epulantur,’ etc. De Jure Belli, lib. ii. cap. xx.
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