Human Excretory System (A) Morphology: The two kidneys are compact, red brown oval or bean shaped

structures located on the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity (Figure 19.1). The right kidney is slightly lower (half an inch)than the left and about four inches in length and weighs about four ounces. Each kidney has an outer convex surface and shows an indentation on the inner side called the hylum. The hylum functions as a route of entry and exit for the blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves and ureters of the kidney. The renal artery branching from the aorta brings oxygenated blood to the kidneys and the renal vein takes deoxygenated blood away to the vena cava. A tube, the ureter, conveys urine from each kidney into the urinary bladder, which opens into the urethra. In females, the urethra opens in front of the vagina. In males, the urethra passes through the penis and transports both urine and semen. Each kidney is covered by a semi-liquid fatty tissue, the adipose capsule, and this in turn, is surrounded by fibrous connective tissue called the renal fascia. The paired adrenal glands are present on top of the kidneys.

Figure 19.1 Excretory system of a human female i) The Ureter. The ureter is about ten inches long, and opens by a lateral angle into the urinary bladder. ii) The Urinary Bladder. It is hollow extensible reservoir of urine, and changes it size and shape according to its contents. It is situated behind the pubic symphysis in males, and in front of the uterus in the female. It has an average capacity of seven ounces and a maximum capacity of ten ounces. iii) Micturition. When the bladder is full (about 600 cm3), waves of contraction pass down the bladder resulting in an urge to urinate. Nerve impulses relax the sphincter muscle at the mouth of bladder, and allow the urine to escape through the urethra. This expulsion of urine from the urinary bladder is called micturition. When urine is expelled, the sphincter muscles contract, the muscles of bladder relax and the urine is collected again in the bladder. In babies (two years old and younger) the contraction of the bladder

and relaxation of the sphincter muscles are under reflex control only. But later (after two years of age) the reaction is usually under voluntary control. (B) Histology of kidney: The vertical section of a kidney (Fig.19.2) shows that it consists of two regions, the outer dark region called the cortex, and the inner, lighter colored zona medulla. It also shows a large number of tiny tubules (nephrons), many capillaries and connective tissue. There is a collecting space called the pelvis where the ureter leaves the kidney; 6 to 15 cones or pyramids of kidney tissue project into this space. The renal artery divides into capillaries, which carry blood to the glomerulus of the uriniferous tubules. The renal vein carries blood away from the uriniferous tubules through its capillary network.

Figure 19.2 Sagittal Section of a Kidney i) Structure of a uriniferous tubule (Nephron) The nephron (Fig. 19.3) is the basic excretory unit of the kidney; there are over a million in each kidney. Each nephron consists of a glomerulus, Bowmans capsule and associated renal tubules. The glomerulus is a small knot of blood vessels formed by a capillary network from the renal artery (afferent vessel). The smaller efferent vessels take the blood away from the glomerulus and enter the capillary network around the tubule of the nephron. The capillaries unite to form the venules to form the renal vein which joins the inferior vena cava.

Click here to enlarge Figure 19.3 Structure of Uriniferous tubule (Nephron) The glomerulus is surrounded by a cup-shaped structure called Bowmans capsule. The Bowmans capsule and the glomerulus together are called the Malpighian body. This is lined by a single layer of flat epithelial cells. The inner membrane of the Bowmans capsule is apposed closely to the walls of glomerular capillaries. Each Bowmans capsule leads into a renal (kidney) tubule. The renal tubule is made up of a first convoluted tubule, (descending and ascending tubules with a Henles loop in between) and a second convoluted tubule leading to a large collecting duct (also called the duct of Belini). The collecting duct passes through the medulla and opens into the pelvis of the kidney at the apex of a pyramid (Fig.19.4). The Malpighian body, proximal and distal convoluted tubules lie in the cortex., while Henles loop and main collecting ducts are present in the medulla. The proximal convoluted tubule is lined by ciliated cubical epithelial cells, the ascending limb and the distal convoluted tubule by cuboidal epithelium and the descending limb is lined by the flattened epithelial cells.

Click here to enlarge Figure 19.4 A Cross section of Cortex and Medulle Formation of Urine The formation of urine involves three processes: ultrafiltration, reabsorption and secretion (Figure 19.6). In these processes there is movement of water (solvent) and dissolved molecules of a small size (solutes) from malpighian body into the tubular lumen under physical pressure (ultrafiltration). This forms the primary urine which is isosmotic to blood from which it is derived. Later the composition of primary urine is

altered by reabsorption of useful substances (e.g. glucose) into the blood, and by the secretion of unwanted substances (e.g. urea) from the blood into the tubular fluid. Reabsorption and secretion involve active transport, therefore are physiological processes; while ultrafiltration is a physical process (filtration under pressure). The concentration of primary urine depends upon the length of loop of Henle. Animals with a longer loop (eg. beaver) produce dilute urine, while man, rabbit have both short and long loops in kidney and have intermediate ability to concentrate urine.

Click here to enlarge a) Ultrafiltration (Glomerular filtration) The afferent vessel, which is of a larger diameter than the efferent vessel, brings the blood into the glomerulus. Here, the endothelial cells of blood vessels, the basement membrane and the single cell lining of the Bowmans capsule form a semipermeable membrane. The blood entering the glomerulus is filtered through the semipermeable membrane into the lumen of the Bowmans capsule under pressure. This filtration under pressure is called ultrafiltration. Blood pressure in glomerular capillaries is about 70 mm Hg. Opposing this is osmotic pressure of blood plasma proteins, which is about 32 mm Hg. Added to this is the pressure of fluid in the nephric capsule, about 20 mm Hg. Therefore the effective filtration pressure is 70- (32+20), i.e. about 18 mm Hg. The glomerular filtrate is nearly isosmotic to plasma and has the same composition of blood, except it does not contain blood cells and proteins. This glomerular filtrate is also called deprotenized plama or primary urine. Reabsorption The primary urine (glomerular filtrate) enters the proximal convoluted tubule where its volume is reduced by about 80%. This is accomplished by active reabsorption of many useful substances like sodium chloride, glucose, amino acids, etc. from the tubular fluid. The water diffuses out of tubular fluid into surrounding tissue (cortical interstitium). This is called obligatory reabsorption of water. Thus, in proximal tubule there is a drastic reduction in fluid-volume without any change in its osmolarity (maintains osmotic balance).

As the tubular fluid passes down the descending limb of Henles loop, water leaves and sodium enters the tubular fluid, the fluid becomes progressively more concentrated and hyperosmotic to blood. The tubular fluid passes through the hair-pin bend and enters the ascending limb of Henles loop. The walls of the ascending limb do not permit diffusion of water and salts. In the ascending limb the chloride ions are actively transported out of the nephron and into the surrounding tissue and sodium ions follow passively. c) Secretion During ultrafiltration, certain harmful substances like ammonia, urea, potassium, hydrogen ions etc. may escape filtration and pass in the surrounding capillary network. Such substances are secreted back into the distal convoluted tubule and then into the common collecting duct. This results in the formation of secondary urine, which is then excreted. Once urine is in the collecting duct, no more absorbtion of water or salts takes place. About 1600 liters of blood passes through the human kidney daily. The amount of plasma in the human body is only about three liters. Thus every drop of plasma in the blood passes through the kidneys, where its contents are monitored, checked and altered, about 560 times in a day. About 180 liters of filtrate passes through the nephron in a day, at the rate of about 125 ml per minute. Most of it is reabsorbed, so that only about one liter of urine is produced and excreted from the body daily. iii) Regulation of kidney function (Hormonal control) The amount of salts, water and production of urine depends upon kidney functions like filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. These are regulated by certain hormones from the pituitary and adrenal gland. a) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Under conditions of water diuresis (i.e., when there is no need for water conservation), the hyposomotic tubular fluid (urine) passes into the collecting tubule unchanged in its osmolarity. When water needs to be conserved by the body, ADH (also called vasopressin) is secreted from the brain, and , the distal convoluted tubule and collecting tubules reabsorb more water, so that urine becomes more concentrated. The water level in blood is restored in this manner. In the absence of ADH, reabsorption of water is reduced, leading to excretion of increased amounts of more dilute urine. b) Aldosterone: Reabsorption of sodium ions is controlled by the hormone aldosterone, produced in the cortex of the adrenal gland. Increased aldosterone production results in increased reabsorption of sodium ions, whereas lowered levels of aldosterone causes increased excretion of sodium.

Angiotensin: In order to maintain normal blood supply and filtration pressure (autoregulation) stretch receptor cells in the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidney initiate nerve impulses and produce a proteolytic enzyme called renin. This enzyme causes the release of angiotensin I and II (one and two). If blood pressure or blood supply is low, angiotensin increases blood pressure by vasoconstriction of arteries and also stimulates secretion of aldosterone. THE ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY : Hemodialysis The failure of both kidneys to function due to disease or injury is fatal: the accumulation of excess toxic substances and potassium in the blood. In such cases the condition can be relieved by the use of an "artificial kidney" i.e. by filtration of blood, called hemodialysis. Dialysis entails using a semipermeable membrane to separate large nondiffusible particles from smaller ones. In an artificial kidney, commonly reffered to as a dialysis machine, blood is diverted from the radial artery in the patients arm through a coiled cellophane tube and then returned to a vein in the same arm. The cellophane tube is immersed in a dialyzing solution, containing a regulated amount of dissolved salts sugar, pH, etc. Since the dialyzing solution contains no wastes and the cellophane tubing is differentially permeable, substances like urea, salts, sugar, hydrogen ions etc. can diffuse out from patients blood into the solution. The diffusion gradient for any substance (salts, glucose, etc.) can be controlled by dissolving more or less of the substance in the dialyzing solution. Excess water is removed by artificially raising the blood pressure in the cellophane tubing. The external solution is changed regularly. Thus, the kidney machine performs the function of the nephron in an efficient manner. The dialysis is done for about 12 hours, twice a week, to remove toxins and excess salts from blood. 19.3 Skin and Lungs as Accessory Excretory Organs In addition to the urinary system, the skin, lungs and liver of vertebrates are accessory excretory organs. (1) Skin: Human skin possesses glands for secreting two fluids on its surface, namely sweat from the sweat glands and sebum from sebaceous glands. (Fig. 19.7). Sweat is a watery fluid containing in solution primarily contains sodium-chloride, lactic acid, urea,

amino acids and glucose. It helps in excreting mainly water and sodium chloride, and a small amount of urea and lactic acid.

Click here to enlarge Figure 19.7 Vertical Section of the Skin Sebum is a wax-like secretion which helps to excrete some lipids such as waxes, sterols, other hydrocarbons and fatty acids on the skin. (B) Lungs: Lungs which are the main respiratory organs of vertebrates, help to eliminate the entire volume of carbon dioxide produced in the body, as well as some moisture, during expiration. The lungs maintain the blood-gas homeostasis through elimination of carbon dioxide. When lungs fail to eliminate enough carbon dioxide, the kidneys attempt to compensate. They change some of the carbon dioxide into sodium bicarbonate, which becomes part of the blood buffer system. SUMMARY (1) Excretion is the removal of nitrogenous waste products from the body. (2) Animals are classified as ammoniotelic, ureotylic, uricotylic and guanotelic according to the predominant excretory product excreted. (3) Kidneys are the most important excretory organs of mammals. Through filtration, reabsorption and active transport, waste is remove, but kidneys conserve substances useful to the organisms. (4) In general, kidneys regulate the intake and the outflow of water and salts in the blood and help to maintain homeostasis. (5) Regulation of kidney function is achieved by certain hormones such as antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone and angiotensin. (6) Skin and lungs also act as accessory excretory organs.