Original Research

International Journal of Sports Science

& Coaching
Mediational role of coping with 0(0) 1–10
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personality and effectiveness DOI: 10.1177/1747954120915190
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of performance of soccer players

Paweł Kalinowski1 , Łukasz Bojkowski2, Robert Sliwowski1
,
Andrzej Wieczorek1, Jan Konarski3 and Maciej Tomczak2

Abstract
There is a trend in soccer to ensure comprehensive player preparation including fitness, technical and tactical, as well as
mental aspects. It has been emphasized many times that personality traits (neuroticism, conscientiousness, extraver-
sion) are significant for the effectiveness of performance in soccer. The question of why these relations occur has been
considered relatively rarely. Therefore, the aim of this study is an attempt to explain these relations through introduc-
tion of ways of coping with stress as their significant mediators. It is hence assumed that players with certain personality
traits are characterized by specific ways of coping with stress which are related to the effectiveness of their perfor-
mance. The study group consisted of 122 players, aged 16–19 years. The participants of the study were youth teams at
the championship level (medalists of the youth Polish Championships), and the following research tools were used:
NEO-FFI Personality Inventory, The Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport (CICS) and Szwarc’s Observation Sheet for
effectiveness in soccer. It was demonstrated that task-focused ways of coping with stress (effort expenditure, thought
control, and logical analysis) were the most frequent mediators of relations between the studied traits and the effec-
tiveness of performance of soccer players.

Keywords
Coping with stress, effectiveness of performance, mediational, personality, soccer

Introduction
Personality traits are factors which are related to effec-
tiveness in soccer.1 In recent years, one of the most
popular models has been the five-factor model of
Costa and McCrae,2 also known as the Big Five.
The authors of this model divide the personality into
five factors: neuroticism, extraversion, conscientious-
ness, agreeableness, and openness to experience.3
Three personality dimensions are often emphasized in
sport (neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientious-
ness) as the most significant for effective performance.
A study on female soccer players has noted a relation
between low neuroticism, high conscientiousness, and
high effectiveness of play,4 and a relation between
effectiveness and neuroticism or extraversion was
noted in players of team sports games.5,6 Attempts to
explain the relations between personality traits and the
effectiveness of performance have been undertaken less
often. Hence, the aim of the study is to answer the
question whether and to what extent the ways of
coping with stress can explain the relations between
the studied personality traits and a player’s effective-
ness of performance. It can be assumed that
Reviewers: Andy Gilham (Ludus Consulting, USA)
Jan Blecharz (University of Physical Education in Krakow,
Poland)
1
Department of Theory and Methodology of Team Sport Games, Poznan
University of Physical Education, Poznan, Poland
2
Department of Psychology, Poznan University of Physical Education,
Poznan, Poland
3
Department of Theory of Sport, Poznan University of Physical
Education, Poznan, Poland
Corresponding author:
Paweł Kalinowski, Department of Theory and Methodology of Team
Sport Games, Poznan University of Physical Education, Kr

olowej Jadwigi
27/39, Pozna
n 61-871, Poland.
Email: kalinowski@awf.poznan.pl
2 International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching 0(0)
personality traits are related to styles and strategies
of coping with stress which in turn are related to the
effectiveness of play.
Previous studies of athletes show that a higher level
of neuroticism is linked to more emotional behavior,
which in turn lowers the effectiveness of task perfor-
mance. Moreover, high conscientiousness and agree-
ableness favored more effective strategies of coping
with stress.7 It was also demonstrated that low neurot-
icism and high extraversion favor task-focused coping
with stress, while low conscientiousness and agreeable-
ness favor emotional coping with stress.8 The study of
participants of the European Championships who took
penalty shots indicated that anxiety (a positive corre-
late of neuroticism) was the strongest predictor of
experiencing stress-inducing reactions.9
It can be assumed that only an appropriate level
of selected traits makes it possible to face up difficult
conditions during play and achieve high performance.
The symptoms of rivalry and aggression, but mainly
direct sports competition in soccer, significantly contrib-
ute to the occurrence of stress. It can be assumed that the
relation between neuroticism and effectiveness is executed
through emotion-focused ways of coping with stress.
Neurotic persons are more susceptible to experiencing
stress, are emotionally sensitive, and experience higher
emotional stimulation in a difficult situation – more
emotion-focused ways will be more natural for them.
For this reason, more neurotic persons in a stressful sit-
uation will be characterized by a lower effectiveness. Less
neurotic persons evaluate the situation in a more ade-
quate way than the persons with a high level of neurot-
icism.7 Hence, it may be assumed that for the players it
will be more appropriate to use task-focused strategies.10
It can be assumed that relations between extraversion
and effectiveness of performance in sport are executed
through task-focused styles and strategies. Athletes with
a high level of extraversion are characterized by a ten-
dency to act and a high activity, so in a difficult situation
they are more focused on the task.10 Therefore, task-
focused strategies will be more natural for them. As a
result, a player with a higher level of extraversion will
display a higher level of performance effectiveness.
Moreover, it can be assumed that in the relation
between conscientiousness and effectiveness, task-
focused strategy of coping with stress mediates as
well. More conscientious athletes are less prone to res-
ignation, have a strong feeling of control, and focus on
the goal.11 Players characterized by a high level of con-
scientiousness related to motivation to act in a difficult
situation focus more on the problem and to a larger
extent adopt task-focused strategies of coping with
stress.10 It can be assumed that athletes with a higher
level of conscientiousness will be more effective in a
difficult situation during competition.
In line with the aim of the study and the presented
assumptions, the following research questions were
posed:
1. Are emotion-focused styles and strategies the medi-
ators in the relation between neuroticism and effec-
tiveness of performance?
2. Are task-focused strategies of coping with stress the
mediators in the relation between neuroticism and
effectiveness of performance?
3. Are task-focused styles and strategies of coping with
stress the mediators in the relation between consci-
entiousness and effectiveness of performance?
4. Are task-focused strategies of coping with stress the
mediators in the relation between extraversion and
effectiveness of performance?
Material and methods
The study group consisted of 122 male soccer players.
Thirty-nine players representing Akademia Ruchu
Chorz
ow, 32 players representing Akademia Lecha
Pozna
n, and 85 players representing Akademia
Pogoni Szczecin took part in the study. All players
were 16–19 years old during the study. The study was
carried out in 2017 in Wronki, Chorz
ow, and Szczecin.
The participants presented a very high sporting level
which is proved by their performance in the Polish
Championships. In the category of younger juniors
(U17), Akademia Lecha Pozna
n won the Polish
Championship in 2016 and 2017. The runners-up in
the Polish championship were Akademia Ruchu
Chorz
ow in 2017 and Akademia Pogoni Szczecin in
2018. In the category of older juniors, U19, the teams
of Akademia Lecha Pozna
n won the Polish
Championship in 2018 and a bronze medal twice, in
2016 and 2017. The teams of Akademia Pogoni
Szczecin were the runners-up in the Polish champion-
ship twice (2016 and 2017).
In order to determine the level of effectiveness of
the players, the league games were recorded on
video. In order to record and measure the play in
each of the places referred to above, 540 min of play
were recorded. To determine the effectiveness of play in
soccer, Szwarc’s12 observation sheet was used. This is a
standard method of study for determining the effective-
ness of soccer players which was devised and published
by Szwarc.12 The author indicates that
Before the start of the study reliability of the study tool
was assessed, for which the percentage of all correct
indications was 97.07%. Estimating consistency for
all actions was in total 98.2% (1v2 – 98.6%, 1v3 –
97.9%, 2v3 – 98.1%, respectively between experts).
(Szwarc,13 p. 53)
Kalinowski et al.
The measurements were always performed by the same
person (one of the authors).
This study tool makes it possible to assess the play-
ers’ effectiveness of performance in attack and defense
by determining 15 effectiveness indicators. All proce-
dures related to the audiovisual technique were applied.
The play was recorded during league games with oppo-
nents playing at the same, top level of competition in
Poland. This method
makes it possible to comprehensively assess the fre-
quency of basic and detailed technical and tactical ele-
ments of the play. Out of 15 effectiveness indicators 7
concern defensive elements. Out of successful elements
of play the following are recorded: shots at goal, passes
on target, winning one-on-one duels in attack and win-
ning the ball from the opponent in one-one-one play
and by overtaking. Ineffective actions in the game
include the loss of ball resulting from lost one-on-one
duels, missed passes, failing to receive the ball, drib-
bling and running with the ball and staying off-side.
(Szwarc,12 p. 27)
Therefore, the recorded study material presented in the
video recording in the form of qualitative data was
processed and presented using quantitative data using
Szwarc’s observation sheet. The data were presented
using the effectiveness indicator.
In order to determine personality traits of the play-
ers, Costa and McCrea’s2 NEO-FFI questionnaire was
used, i.e. its Polish adaptation by Zawadzki et al.14 The
questionnaire consists of statements which are rated on
a five-point true–false scale (1–5), which is then trans-
lated into a four-point scale (0–4). The NEO-Five
Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) includes basic informa-
tion about the participants: first name, surname, date
of birth, profession, and education. In total, it includes
60 statements in five domains such as neuroticism, con-
scientiousness, extraversion, openness to experience,
and agreeableness. The studied players filled in the
whole questionnaire. For the purpose of this study,
neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness were
singled out. The NEO-FFI personality questionnaire
used refers directly to one of the most popular
approaches to personality, i.e. the Big Five model.
The accuracy and reliability of the questionnaire have
been confirmed in many countries.15,16 In terms of the
validation of the Polish version of the NEO FFI, dif-
ferent indicators of accuracy and reliability were pre-
sented.14 The reliability of the NEO FFI scales was
assessed on the basis of Cronbach alpha measure of
internal consistency. The highest reliability coefficients
were noted for conscientiousness (alpha ¼ 0.82), neu-
roticism (alpha ¼ 0.80), extraversion (alpha ¼ 0.77).14
For example, as part of testing accuracy, the
3
correlation between the self-description and the estima-
tion was presented. The highest correlation coefficients
between self-description and estimation were noted
for extraversion from 0.57 to 0.66, neuroticism
(M above 0.50 [0.51; 0.58]), conscientiousness (M
above 0.40 [0.43; 0.51]). On the other hand, the highest
correlations between estimation and estimation were
noted for extraversion (M ¼ 0.41; 0.49), neuroticism
(M ¼ 0.34; 0.40), conscientiousness (M ¼ 0.32; 0.33).
Moreover, coefficients of heritability were tested for
the studied properties.
They were: for extraversion (self-description: 0.30;
estimation; 0.53), neuroticism (self-description: 0.57;
estimation: 0.53), conscientiousness (self-description:
0.38; estimation: 0.71). Moreover, the relations of the
studied properties with personality traits measured
with the use of other questionnaires were assessed,
e.g. FCZKT temperament questionnaire,17 EAS-D
questionnaire (Buss, Plomin), PTS questionnaire.18
Neuroticism most often correlated with emotional
reactivity (from the FCZK temperament questionnaire
of Zawadzki and Strelau17 (r ¼ 0.64; p < 0.01) and the
strength of excitation (from PTS temperament ques-
tionnaire18 (r ¼ 0.50; p < 0.01). Extraversion most
often correlated with activity (from FCZKT question-
naire (r ¼ 0.63; p < 0.01) and activity (r ¼ 0.51;
p < 0.01) and sociability as seen by Buss Plomin19
(r ¼ 0.55; p < 0.01).
The Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport
(CICS) was selected as a universal tool to measure
the style of coping with stress in sport (CICS – style)
and to study the strategies, i.e. actions undertaken
during the sport competition (CICS – strategies). The
authors of the original French version were Gaudreau
and Blondin.20 The questionnaire consists of 39 items,
examines 10 strategies and 10 styles: task-oriented
(mental imagery, effort expenditure, thought control,
seeking support, relaxation, logical analysis),
distraction-oriented (distancing and mental distraction)
and emotion-oriented (venting of unpleasant emotions
and resignation).9,10,21,22 In the current study, the
Polish version adapted by Knittel and Guszkowska10
was used. The Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport
(CICS) is one of the most popular questionnaires for
coping with stress in sport. Studies in many countries
indicate its validity accuracy and reliability. In terms of
validation of the Polish version of CICS, various indi-
cators of accuracy and reliability were presented.10,23,24
The reliability of the CICS-strategies scales tested on
the basis of Cronbach alpha internal consistency coef-
ficient was from 0.63 to 0.89. In terms of accuracy,
correlations with styles of coping with stress measured
with CISS questionnaire were presented. For example,
the task-oriented style tested with a CISS questionnaire
devised by Endler and Parker25 positively correlated
4 International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching 0(0)
with the strategy of thought control (r ¼ 0.496;
p < 0.001) and the strategy of effort expenditure
(r ¼ 0.425; p < 0.001); emotional style positively corre-
lated with the resignation strategy (r ¼ 529; p < 0.001)
and strategy of venting of emotions (r ¼ 0.420;
p < 0.001); and avoidance style was significantly related
with the distraction style (r ¼ 0.275; p < 0.05).10,24
On the other hand, the reliability of CICS-style scales
tested on the basis of Cronbach alpha internal consis-
tency coefficient was from 0.60 to 0.87. In terms of accu-
racy, correlations with styles of coping with stress
measured with CISS questionnaire were presented.
For example, the task-oriented style tested with CISS
questionnaire devised by Endler and Parker25 positively
correlates with the style of thought control (r ¼ 0.582;
p < 0.001) and the style of effort expenditure (r ¼ 0.561;
p < 0.001); emotional style positively correlated with
the resignation style (r ¼ 506; p < 0.001) and venting
of emotions style (r ¼ 0.503; p < 0.001); and avoidance
style was significantly related with the distraction style
(r ¼ 0.367; p < 0.05).23
In order to answer the research questions, media-
tional analysis was applied. It was assumed that a sig-
nificant mediational effect occurred when statistically
significant indirect effect was achieved. This is a prod-
uct effect of relation between an independent variable
and the mediator (a path) and the relation between the
mediator and a dependent variable with control of
independent variable (b path indirect effect: a  b).
To build a confidence interval and assess the signifi-
cance of indirect effect, the recently recommended per-
centile bootstrap was used.26 If 95% confidence
interval does not contain zero, then the indirect effect
is statistically significant at the level of 0.05. In order to
determine the confidence interval, an analysis was car-
ried out using 5000 bootstrap samples. The analysis
was performed using Macra Process by Andrew
Hayes.26
In order to summarize mediational effects obtained
in single mediations, the path analysis was performed
using modeling of structural equations. So the models
were created on the basis of the assumptions made and
the results obtained in single mediational analyses.
Matching of models to data was assessed on the basis
of the analysis of Chi square test, Comparative Fit of
Index (CFI), and Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation (RMSEA). Insignificant value of the
Chi square test and the CFI above 0.90 and RMSEA
below 0.08 shows satisfactory matching of the model to
the data.27 In this study, however, these indicators are
of only additional importance, as the models were used
to summarize the effects obtained earlier. Insignificant
paths in the model were excluded. AMOS software was
used for the path analysis.
Results
In an attempt to answer the research question, first of
all, the results concerning relations between neuroti-
cism, conscientiousness and extraversion, styles of
coping with stress and effectiveness of performance
were presented (Table 1).
Significant relations between the studied personality
traits and the effectiveness of performance were noted
(neuroticism: b ¼ –0.36; p < 0.001, extraversion:
b ¼ –0.31; p < 0.001, conscientiousness: b ¼ 0.23;
p < 0.05). In the relation between neuroticism and
emotion-focused and task-focused styles of coping
with stress and the effectiveness of performance, insig-
nificant mediation effect was noted for such intervening
variables as: venting of emotions, resignation, mental
imagery, effort expenditure, thought control, seeking
support, logical analysis, and relaxation (Table 1).
For conscientiousness, statistically significant
indirect effect was noted for task-focused style (thought
control) (0.0864; 95% CI (0.0208; 0.1676)).
Conscientiousness was positively related to thought
control (b ¼ 0.32; p < 0.001), which in turn is related
to effectiveness (b ¼ 0.27; p < 0.01) (Table 1). Then sig-
nificant indirect effect was noted for logical analysis
(0.0578 (0.0080; 0.1294)). Conscientiousness was posi-
tively related to logical analysis (b ¼ 0.25; p < 0.01) and
logical analysis was related to effectiveness (b ¼ 0.23;
p < 0.05) (Table 1). In other relations, insignificant
mediational effects were noted (cf. Table 1).
For extraversion, statistically significant mediational
effect was noted for the task-focused style (thought
control) (0.0774; 95% CI (0.0141; 0.1687)).
Extraversion was related to thought control (b ¼ 0.32;
p < 0.001), which in turn is positively related to effec-
tiveness (b ¼ 0.24; p < 0.01) (Table 1). Similarly, signif-
icant mediational effect was noted for logical analysis
(0.0502 (0.0042; 0.1201)). Extraversion was positively
related to logical analysis (b ¼ 0.23; p < 0.01), which
in turn was positively related to effectiveness of
performance (b ¼ 0.21; p < 0.05) (Table 1). In the rela-
tion between extraversion, task-focused styles and
the effectiveness of performance insignificant media-
tional effects were noted for such intervening variables
as: mental imagery, seeking support, and relaxation
(Table 1).
Next we present mediational analysis for the rela-
tions between neuroticism, conscientiousness, extraver-
sion, strategies of coping with stress and effectiveness
of performance in soccer (Table 2).
In case of relations between neuroticism, effort
expenditure, and effectiveness, significant indirect
effect was noted (–0.054; 95% CI (–0.1137; –0.0053)).
Neuroticism was negatively related to effort expendi-
ture (b ¼ –0.22; p < 0.05). Effort expenditure was
Kalinowski et al. 5

Table 1. Mediational analysis for the relationship: selected personality traits – styles of coping with stress – effectiveness of
performance.

Dependent Independent Intervening Indirect effect

variable variable variable a b c0 c (a  b) 95% CI F/R2

EFF NEU Distancing 0.25** –0.03 –0.35*** –0.36*** –0.009 [–0.067; 0.033] 9.07***/0.13
Distraction 0.29*** –0.004 –0.36*** –0.36*** –0.001 [–0.056; 0.068] 8.98***/0.13
Venting of emotions 0.37*** –0.09 –0.33*** –0.36*** –0.034 [–0.112; 0.032] 9.56***/0.14
Resignation 0.43*** –0.13 –0.31** –0.36*** –0.056 [–0.131; 0.024] 10.01***/0.14
Mental imagery 0.02 0.23** –0.37*** –0.36*** 0.005 [–0.038; 0.057] 13.34***/0.18
Effort expenditure –0.36*** 0.08 –0.33*** –0.36*** –0.031 [–0.092; 0.042] 9.47***/0.14
Thought control –0.17 0.26** –0.32*** –0.36*** –0.044 [–0.096; 0.04] 14.70***/0.20
Seeking support –0.01 0.15 –0.36*** –0.36*** –0.001 [–0.032; 0.027] 10.85***/0.15
Relaxation –0.06 0.12 –0.35*** –0.36*** –0.008 [–0.041; 0.016] 10.12***/0.14
Logical analysis –0.03 0.26** –0.35*** –0.36*** –0.007 [–0.052; 0.040] 14.95***/0.20
CON Mental imagery 0.09 0.20* 0.21* 0.23* 0.018 [–0.016; 0.076] 6.06**/0.09
Effort expenditure 0.57*** 0.11 0.17 0.23* 0.063 [–0.089; 0.189] 3.85*/0.06
Thought control 0.32*** 0.27** 0.14 0.23* 0.086 [0.0208; 0.1676] 7.97***/0.12
Seeking support 0.16 0.12 0.21* 0.23* 0.020 [–0.012; 0.071] 4.22*/0.07
Relaxation 0.19* 0.10 0.21* 0.23* 0.020 [–0.020; 0.069] 3.97*/0.06
Logical analysis 0.25** 0.23* 0.17 0.23* 0.058 [0.008; 0.1294] 6.79**/0.10
EXT Mental imagery 0.22* 0.16 0.27** 0.31*** 0.036 [–0.002; 0.105] 7.99***/0.12
Effort expenditure 0.24** 0.14 0.27** 0.31*** 0.034 [–0.005; 0.010] 7.52***/0.11
Thought control 0.32*** 0.24** 0.23* 0.31*** 0.077 [0.0141; 0.1687] 10.27***/0.15
Seeking support 0.21* 0.09 0.29** 0.31*** 0.020 [–0.028; 0.068] 6.78**/0.10
Relaxation 0.30*** 0.05 0.29** 0.31*** 0.017 [–0.040; 0.076] 6.39**/0.10
Logical analysis 0.23** 0.21* 0.26** 0.31*** 0.050 [0.0042; 0.1201] 6.79***/0.14
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
a: relation between independent variable and the mediator; b: relation between mediator and dependent variable with statistical control of independent
variable; c0 : relation between independent variable and dependent variable with statistical control of mediator; c: relation between independent variable
and dependent variable; a  b: indirect effect; F/R2: value of F test statistic for the regression model taking into account independent variable and
mediator/coefficient of determination; EFF: effectiveness of performance; CON: conscientiousness; EXT: extraversion; NEU: neuroticism.

positively related to effectiveness (b ¼ 0.24; p < 0.01)
(Table 2). For other relations between neuroticism
and strategies of coping with stress and effectiveness,
no significant indirect effects were noted (Table 2).
For conscientiousness, significant indirect effect was
noted for the strategy of effort expenditure (0.1432; 95%
CI (0.0313; 0.2519)). Conscientiousness was positively
related to effort expenditure (b ¼ 0.54; p < 0.001),
which in turn was positively related to effectiveness
(b ¼ 0.27; p < 0.05) (Table 2). Also, significant indirect
effect (0.0571; 95% CI (0.0003; 0.1510)) was noted for
thought control. Conscientiousness was positively relat-
ed to thought control (b ¼ 0.26; p < 0.01) and thought
control was positively related to effectiveness (b ¼ 0.21;
p < 0.05) (Table 2). In other relations, insignificant medi-
ational effects were noted (cf. Table 2).
For extraversion, significant indirect effect was
noted for the strategy of effort expenditure (0.069;
95% CI (0.0118; 0.1419)). Extraversion was positively
related to effort expenditure (b ¼ 0.28; p < 0.01) and
effort expenditure was in turn related to effectiveness
(b ¼ 0.25; p < 0.01) (Table 2). In the relation between
extraversion and task-focused strategies of coping with
stress and effectiveness, insignificant mediational
effects were noted for such intervening variables as
mental imagery, thought control, seeking support,
relaxation, logical analysis (Table 2).
The summary of mediational effects was presented in
path models. The first presented model summarizes the
relations: selected personality traits – ways of coping
with stress – effectiveness of performance in soccer.
The presented model was characterized by good
matching to data v2 ¼ 5.58; df ¼ 4; p ¼ 0.233 and
RMSEA ¼ 0.057 and CFI ¼ 0.984. The variables
explained 23% of effectiveness of performance in
soccer (Figure 1). The analysis of modification indices
indicated that the correlation between errors for medi-
ators is allowed. Similarly, as for single mediations, con-
scientiousness was positively related to logical analysis
and thought control which in turn increased the chances
of high effectiveness. Moreover, significant positive
relations between extraversion and thought control
was noted as well as marginally significant relation
between extraversion and logical analysis (p ¼ 0.066),
which increased the chance of high effectiveness of per-
formance. Direct negative relation between neuroticism
6 International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching 0(0)

Table 2. Mediational analysis for the relation: selected personality traits – strategies of coping with stress – effectiveness of
performance.

Dependent Independent Intervening Indirect result

variable variable variable a b c0 c (a  b) 95% CI F/R2

EFF NEU Distancing 0.18* 0.01 –0.36*** –0.36*** 0.01 [–0.034; 0.034] 8.98***/0.13
Distraction 0.27** –0.05 –0.35*** –0.36*** –0.013 [–0.066; 0.041] 9.15***/0.13
Venting of emotions 0.33*** –0.05 –0.35*** –0.36*** –0.016 [–0.084; 0.042] 9.14***/0.13
Resignation 0.42*** –0.07 –0.33*** –0.36*** –0.032 [–0.126; 0.042] 9.36***/0.13
Mental imagery 0.01 0.21* –0.36*** –0.36*** –0.001 [–0.041; 0.048] 12.52***/0.17
Effort expenditure –0.22* 0.24** –0.31*** –0.36*** –0.054 [–0.1137; –0.0053] 13.82***/0.19
Thought control – 0.17 0.21* –0.33*** –0.36*** 0.034 [–0.102;0.004] 12.40***/0.17
Seeking support – 0.01 0.10 –0.36*** –0.36*** –0.001 [–0.028; 0.025] 9.84***/0.14
Relaxation – 0.08 0.06 –0.36*** –0.36*** –0.005 [–0.032; 0.012] 9.24***/0.13
Logical analysis – 0.01 0.21* –0.36*** –0.36*** –0.001 [–0.040; 0.044] 12.77***/0.18
CON Mental imagery 0.17 0.17 0.20* 0.23* 0.029 [–0.040; 0.092] 5.23**/0.08
Effort expenditure 0.54*** 0.27* 0.09 0.23* 0.143 [0.0313; 0.2519] 6.86**/0.10
Thought control 0.27** 0.21* 0.17 0.23* 0.057 [0.0003; 0.1510] 6.28**/0.09
Seeking support 0.11 0.08 0.22* 0.23* 0.010 [–0.017; 0.050] 3.75**/0.06
Relaxation 0.19* 0.04 0.22* 0.23* 0.010 [–0.028; 0.056] 3.42*/0.05
Logical analysis 0.18* 0.18* 0.20* 0.23* 0.032 [–0.0024; 0.0985] 5.45**/0.08
EXT Mental imagery 0.24** 0.14 0.27** 0.31*** 0.033 [–0.007; 0.102] 7.56***/0.11
Effort expenditure 0.28** 0.25** 0.24** 0.31*** 0.069 [0.0118; 0.1419] 10.55***/0.15
Thought control 0.27** 0.19* 0.25** 0.31*** 0.051 [–0.0008; 0.1477] 8.79***/0.13
Seeking support 0.21* 0.05 0.30** 0.31*** 0.010 [–0.049; 0.051] 6.34**/0.10
Relaxation 0.21* 0.02 0.30*** 0.31*** 0.005 [–0.038; 0.048] 6.23**/0.09
Logical analysis 0.27** 0.14 0.27** 0.31*** 0.039 [–0.006; 0.107] 7.58***/0.11
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
a: relation between independent variable and mediator; b: relation between mediator and dependent variable with statistical control of independent
variable; c0 : relation between independent variable and dependent variable with statistical control of mediator; c: relation between independent variable
and dependent variable; a  b: indirect result; F/R2: value of F test statistic for the regression model taking into account independent variable and
mediator/coefficient of determination; EXT: extraversion; EFF: effectiveness of performance; CON: conscientiousness; NEU: neurocismus.

and effectiveness of performance in soccer was also
noted (similar to single mediational models).
Then, the summarizing model for strategies of
coping with stress was presented.
The model was characterized by good matching with
data v2¼3.91; df ¼ 4; p ¼ 0.418 and RMSEA ¼ 0.00 and
CFI ¼ 1.00. The variables explained 20% of effective-
ness of performance in soccer (Figure 2). Similarly, as
for single mediations, conscientiousness was positively
related to effort expenditure and thought control,
which in turn increased the chance of high effectiveness
(for thought control the effect was marginally signifi-
cant p < 0.055). However, no significant relations were
noted between neuroticism and extraversion and effort
expenditure which occurred in single mediational
models. However, direct negative relation between neu-
roticism and effectiveness of performance in soccer was
noted.
Discussion
Significant relation was noted between neuroticism and
effectiveness of soccer players. It was noted that the
lower the neuroticism level, the higher the effectiveness
of performance of players. These results confirm the
findings of previous studies of Piedmont et al.4 on
female soccer players and the study of Kalinowski5
who examined the relation between effectiveness and
neuroticism of soccer players. Similar results were
obtained by O’Sullivan et al.6 in players of team
sports (soccer, hockey, and baseball). In their work,
the authors demonstrated significant relation between
a lower level of anxiety (a factor linked to lower neu-
roticism) and higher effectiveness. Hence, it may be
assumed that a low level of neuroticism helps achieve
high performance in team sports. The results of the
study confirm earlier findings.
The first research question posed in the study: “Are
emotion-focused styles and strategies the mediators in
the relation between neuroticism and effectiveness of
performance?” was not answered in the affirmative.
It was noted that the relation between neuroticism
and effectiveness of performance is not explained by
emotional styles (venting of emotions and resignation).
Research hypotheses were not confirmed by the rela-
tions concerning strategies of coping with stress.
In search of explanations, we referred to the relations
noted and the specificity of actions undertaken in the
Kalinowski et al.
0,19*
CON
- 0,34xxx
EXT
- 0,35xxx
- 0,18
NEU
Figure 1. The summarizing model for personalities, styles of coping with stress and effectiveness of performance.
v2 ¼ 5.58; df ¼ 4; p ¼ 0.233; CFI ¼ 0.984; RMSEA ¼ 0.057; Indirect effect for extraversion ¼ 0.075 95% CI [0.009; 0.176]; Indirect
effect for conscientiousness ¼ 0.080 95% CI [0.017; 0.148].
Coefficients: Effectiveness R2 ¼ 0.23; LA R2 ¼ 0.09; TC R2 ¼ 0.15; #p ¼ 0.066.
LA: logical analysis; TC: thought control; EFF: effectiveness of performance; CON: conscientiousness; EXT: extraversion;
NEU: neuroticism.
field. Players in the pitch are subject to the changing
playing conditions. It should be noted that stronger
direct relations between neuroticism and effectiveness
of performance were noted, which could be an indica-
tion that the hypotheses are not confirmed. It should
also be emphasized that neuroticism was related to
emotion-focused coping strategies which do not predis-
pose to effective performance.10 Emotional persons in a
difficult situation, like a match, focus more on emo-
tional states and their own experience which does not
facilitate the performance of the activities. Similar
results were obtained by Hofseth.28 The researchers
indicate that neurotics adopt less favorable way of
coping with stress.7
The second study question “Are task-focused strat-
egies of coping with stress the mediators in the relation
between neuroticism and effectiveness of perform-
ance?” was answered in the affirmative only in refer-
ence to effort expenditure. It can be concluded that
only this dimension of task-focused strategies seems
appropriate to be adopted by players during play in
which the actions of the opponent have to be taken
into consideration. Players with a low level of neurot-
icism adopting task-focused strategy of coping with
stress (effort expenditure) were characterized by a
7
E1
LA
E2
E3
EFF
TC
high level of performance effectiveness. This is consis-
tent with the results of DeLongis and Holtman,29 who
demonstrated that more neurotic persons badly choose
task-focused strategies. Soccer players tend more to
solve problems during play which confirms the findings
of Knittel and Guszkowska10 and Secades et al.21 Due
to the occurrence of difficult situations during the play,
it seems highly justifiable to adopt task-focused ways in
this dimension.
The third research question “Are task-focused styles
and strategies the mediators in the relation between
conscientiousness and effectiveness of performance?”
was partly answered in the affirmative. First of all,
the relationship between conscientiousness and effec-
tiveness was found. Some of the task-focused styles of
coping with stress turned out to be mediators of rela-
tionship between conscientiousness and effectiveness.
They include thought control and logical analysis;
however, this assumption was not confirmed for
effort expenditure, relaxation, mental imagery, and
seeking support. Similar results were obtained for
task-focused strategies. The assumption was confirmed
in such dimensions as effort expenditure and thought
control. These results are identical to those noted
by Piedmont et al.,4 who demonstrated a positive
8 International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching 0(0)

EES

CON

EFF
- 0,35xxx

TCS

NEU

Figure 2. The summarizing model for personalities and strategies of coping with stress.
v2 ¼ 3.91; df ¼ 4; p ¼ 0.418; CFI ¼ 1.00; RMSEA ¼ 0.00; Indirect effect for conscientiousness ¼ 0.15 95% CI [0.051; 0.266]
Coefficients: Effectiveness R2 ¼ 0.20; EES R2 ¼ 0.29; TCS R2 ¼ 0.07; #p ¼ 0.055.
EES: effort expenditure strategies; TCS: thought control strategies; EFF: effectiveness of performance; CON: conscientiousness; NEU:
neuroticism.

relationship between conscientiousness and effective-
ness in female soccer players, and the results of
Krawczy
nki30 and Kalinowski5 who studied the players
of Hertha Berlin. It can be assumed that a high level of
conscientiousness is useful for high sports performance
achieved through adopting task-focused strategies. It
seems highly probable that players with a high level
of conscientiousness focus more easily on the task in
difficult match situations. Hence, the dimensions of
strategies such as effort expenditure and thought con-
trol are very useful in soccer. It can be assumed that
soccer players, similar to tennis players studied by
Knittel and Guszkowska,10 should display a significant
level of thought control in difficult situations, which is
necessary to carry out effective actions in sports
competition. These observations are consistent with
the findings of Allen et al.,11 who in their work
demonstrated that persons with a higher level of con-
scientiousness more often adopt task-focused strate-
gies. High conscientiousness, according to Zakowski
et al.,31 predisposes to adopting task-focused styles,
leading to increased self-confidence in striving to
achieve objectives.
In our study, the relationships between extraversion
and effectiveness of play of soccer players were pre-
sented. Similar to the study of players of a German
club,5 positive relationship between high level of extra-
version and high effectiveness was noted. The fourth
research question “Are task-focused methods of coping
with stress the mediators in the relation between
extraversion and effectiveness of performance?” was
partially confirmed. The study of the mediational role
of styles of coping with stress such as thought control,
logical analysis and task-focused strategies such as
effort expenditure had statistically significant indirect
effect. These results are consistent with the results of
Keiseler et al.7 No confirmation was obtained in such
dimensions of styles as mental imagery, effort expendi-
ture, seeking support, relaxation, and for task-focused
strategies in such subscales as mental imagery, thought
control, seeking support, relaxation, and logical analy-
sis. Positive correlation of task-focused styles with
extraversion was shown in the study of Keiseler and
Levy8 which the current study confirms. Similar rela-
tionships were noted10 with respect to thought control
as the coping style used by more extrovert persons.
It should be noted that the results of the study were
obtained from a selected group of soccer players at
the championship level, which may contribute to the
fact that some assumptions were not confirmed.
In models summarizing the results of single mediations,
it was shown that variables taking into consideration
Kalinowski et al.
styles account for 23% of effectiveness (Figure 1) and
variables taking into consideration strategies account
for 20% of effectiveness (Figure 2). These results con-
firm the significance of psychological determinations of
effectiveness of performance in soccer.
The limitation encountered was the highly selected
study group (medalists of the youth Polish champion-
ships). This should be followed by a more extensive
study on a more representative sample of soccer
player population. It is very varied in terms of sports
level. Another limitation is selection of one sex. Only
male participants were studied. They were also of one
nationality. It would also be worthwhile to carry out
such a study on women and in other countries.
The knowledge of the requirements for conditions of
sports competition in the studied sport (in our case
soccer) and the relations between selected mental traits
(personality, styles, and strategies of coping with stress)
and performance effectiveness does not only complete
psychology of sport, but also helps in more effective prac-
tical work with players striving for the best performance.
From the applicative point of view, the results
(knowledge of the relations between the level of neurot-
icism, conscientiousness and extraversion, and perfor-
mance effectiveness) may help in the selection process
in sport (including for specific psychosocial require-
ments/demands). Another practical application of the
study relates to the specificity of work with a player
and team, where knowing the relations between neurot-
icism, increasing effort and effects of work in soccer and
traits of conscientiousness, extraversion, thought control
and logical analysis and effectiveness of soccer perfor-
mance, it is possible to more effectively support the play-
ers characterized by a certain (not only extreme) level of
these psychological traits in actions undertaken by them
(supporting styles and strategies of coping with stress),
selection of training means and to individually adjust
objectives. The third practical conclusion of the study
is drawing attention to task-focused styles and strategies
of coping in sport which are the most significant for the
effectiveness of performance in soccer. This is significant
applicative information for psychologists working with
sports clubs who can more effectively develop and influ-
ence certain task areas, including work techniques based
on mental imagery and relaxation training, thought level
control and involvement.
It is recommended that further studies (including rep-
lication of earlier analyses) should aim to extend
the number of the studied mental traits (including sex
identity, feeling of own effectiveness, motivation, multi-
dimensional understanding of self-esteem or fear defined
as a trait, among others), increase the group of the stud-
ied players representing the top player level (including
groups of women), and include athletes involved in
other sport disciplines (individual, extreme sports).
9
Conclusions
In the light of the above analyses, the following con-
clusions can be formulated:
1. For the relation between neuroticism and effective-
ness, the only mediator was effort expenditure.
Participants with a lower level of neuroticism more
often adopted effort expenditure, which in turn
increased the chances of high effectiveness of
performance.
2. Task-focused coping with stress explained the rela-
tionship between conscientiousness and effectiveness
of performance of soccer players in a rather signifi-
cant degree. Players with a higher level of conscien-
tiousness more often coped with stress by applying
task-focused methods (thought control, logical anal-
ysis, and effort expenditure) compared to players
with a lower level of conscientiousness. Persons
who more often coped with stress by adopting
task-focused methods were characterized by a
higher level of effectiveness of performance.
3. Some of the task-focused methods of coping with
stress significantly mediated the relation between
extraversion and effectiveness of performance.
Soccer players with a higher level of extraversion
more frequently coped with stress by applying
task-focused methods (styles such as: thought con-
trol, logical analysis; strategy – effort expenditure)
compared to less extravert players. Players who
more often coped by adopting elements of task-
focused styles were characterized by a higher effec-
tiveness of performance.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Paweł Kalinowski https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7288-7208
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