Perceptual and Motor Skills, 2006, 103,463-470.

O Perceptual and Motor Skills 2006

GIRLS' SOCCER PERFORMANCE AND MOTIVATION:

GAMES VS TECHNIQUE APPROACH '

DIMITRIS CHATZOPOULOS, AMALIA DRAKOU,

MARINA KOTZAMANIDOU, AND HARALAMBOS TSORBATZOUDIS
Department of Physical Education and Sport Science
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Summavy.-The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the Tech-
nique and Games approaches on girls' soccer performance and motivation. The Tech-
nique approach focuses on technique instruction using drills, whereas the Games ap-
proach places emphasis on tactic instruction with modified games. 37 girls, 12 to 13
years old, were taught 15 soccer lessons by the Technique approach and 35 girls by
the Games approach. At the beginning and at the end of the research soccer matches
were videotaped and evaluated by Oslin, Mitchell, and Griffin's Game Performance
Assessment Instrument. Girls' motivation was assessed on the Intrinsic Motivation In-
ventory. The Games group had significantly better scores after training on tactical be-
haviour and intrinsic motivation than the Technique group. There were no significant
differences in skill execution between groups trained under the two approaches. Con-
sidering the importance of intrinsic motivation for a lifelong, physically active lifestyle,
researchers could focus study on the approaches and girls' motivation.

Teaching children to be effective game players is recognized as a pri-

mary goal of physical education programs (National Association for Sport
and Physical Education, 1995). Traditionally, in the games lessons students
learn the techniques of the games, e.g., passing, dribbling, and play the cor-
responding game at the culmination of each unit (Technique approach). A
major assumption of the Technique approach is that a student who pos-
sesses the techniques of a game is also able to play the game (Turner & Mar-
tinek, 1995). However, many teachers observed that students who executed
the techniques correctly in the practice d r d s performed poorly during games
(Werner, Thorpe, & Bunker, 1996). Although they knew how to perform a
technique, their contribution to a game was not effective because they didn't
know "what to do" in the context of game situations (Grehaigne, Godbout,
& Bouthier, 2001).
Especially, participation of many girls in invasion games, e.g., soccer,
basketball, is reduced to continuous running after the ball. Many have no
sense of where to move when possessing the ball and even more when not
possessing the ball. For this reason, it is difficult for such girls to enjoy and

'Address correspondence to Dimitris Chatzopoulos, Department of Physical Education and

Sport Science, Aristotle University, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece or e-mail (chatzop@phed.auth.
gr).
464 D. CHATZOPOULOS, ET AL.

participate effectively in traditional team sports. A reasonable response could

be the Games approach (Thorpe, Bunker, & Almond, 1986; Allison & Bar-
rett, 2000). In the Games approach, teaching takes place within modified
games where children learn how to play the game. General strategies (give-
and-go, screen rebounding, etc.) are introduced to develop tactical aware-
ness of the game ("what to do") before teaching of skills. How to do the
sklll (dribble, pass, shoot, etc.) is introduced when students have learned
what to do to solve a tactical problem in a game (Turner, 1996).
Most relevant studies have not yielded significant differences in skill exe-
cution between the two approaches (Turner & Martinek, 1992; Stuart &
Thorpe, 1997; Blomqvist, Luhtanen, & Laakso, 2001). In only two studies of
badminton the Technique group performed significantly better in skill exe-
cution than the Games group (French, Werner, Rink, Taylor, & Hussey,
1996; French, Werner, Taylor, Hussey, & Jones, 1996). Concerning tactical
behaviour, some studies have shown that the Games approach was better
than the Technique approach (Stuart & Thorpe, 1997; Turner & Martinek,
1999), and some indicated no significant difference (Turner & Martinek,
1992; Blomqvist, et al., 2001).
Factors in discrepancies in skill execution could be (a) varied ages of
the students and (b) different nature of the sport games used in the interven-
tions (e.g., badminton, basketball). Tactical behaviour has improved with the
Games approach rather than with the Technique approach (Brooker, Kirk,
Braiuka, & Bransgrove, 2000). However, the superiority of the Games ap-
proach regarding tactical behaviour could be related to tactics not being
taught to the Technique groups. To date, whether tactical behaviour could
be improved by a Technique approach when technique practicing would be
followed by tactic strategies has not been investigated.
Another interesting point in research on games teaching is focus on
technique and tactical outcomes (Holt, Strean, & Bengoechea, 2002). Stu-
dents' motivation has not been studied, although the purpose of teaching
any game in school should be also the improvement of students' motivation.
A student who is intrinsically motivated to play a game is more likely to play
this game during leisure, which could lead to a healthier lifestyle. In a Tech-
nique approach, students practice the techniques with drills, which are con-
sidered less enjoyable than game playing (Strean & Holt, 2000). In contrast,
students' motivation may be enhanced through the Games approach because
they have more playtime than in the Technique approach.
Furthermore, none of the relevant studies investigated the effects of the
two approaches on girls' soccer performance and motivation. The purpose of
the present study then was to compare the effectiveness of the two ap-
proaches on girls' soccer performance and their motivation. Specifically, there
were three hypotheses. (a) There would be no difference between the two
 GIRLS' SOCCER PERFORMANCE 465

approaches on tactical behaviour, because both groups would receive tactic

instruction in a different way. The Games group would learn tactic through
the modified games, whereas the Technique group would learn tactic with-
out practicing in modified games (see further description in Method). (b)
The Technique group would perform better on technique execution than
the Games group because the Technique group would spend more time on
such practice. (c) Girls in the Games group would show higher intrinsic mo-
tivation than those in the Technique group because they would play more
than the Technique group and game play is more enjoyable.

Participants
The participants were 72 seventh grade girls who volunteered from eight
middle school classes (ages from 12 to 13 years). Each class was randomly
assigned to one of the two treatments: four classes in the Games approach
(35 girls) and four in the Technique approach (37 girls). Informed consent
was obtained from all participants and their parents or guardians. Reasons
for choosing girls of that age as participants were (a) according to Greek
physical education programs soccer is obligatory instruction for this age and
(b) after Greece won the soccer European Championship 2004 in Portugal
many girls wanted to learn and play soccer.
Procedure
The two teachers applied both Technique and Games approaches. Each
taught two Technique groups and two Games groups. This was done to mit-
igate the effect that teachers' personality may have upon students' learning.
The teachers were also provided guidelines for the two teaching approaches
and also weekly lesson plans. Researchers and teachers reviewed the plans
every week to assure the fidelity of the two approaches and to discuss prog-
ress and problems from previous teaching episodes.
The two treatment groups were taught soccer. The unit of instruction
was a 5-wk., 15-lesson format (3 days per week). In each 45-min. lesson, 30
min. were allocated for instruction specific to treatment and the last 10 min.
for game play to encourage game appreciation and practice of techniques
(Gallahue, 1996; Rink, 2001). In each lesson about 3 min. were allocated for
organisation (attendance, proper dressing, etc.) and about 2 min. for closing
activities.
The Technique group began the lesson with a demonstration of a spe-
cific technique, followed by the practise of the technique in a series of drills
(25 minutes). Techniques taught during the 15 lessons were common to
those of the Games approach and were passing (short, long, on the ground,
in the air), ball-control (inside and outside of foot, leg trap), dribbling,
466 D. CHATZOPOULOS, ET AL.

tricks for evading an opponent, shooting, and throw-in. Drills were selected
from Griffin, Mitchell, and Oslin (1997) and Wein (2001). After technique
practice, tactic was taught for 5 min. The teacher presented a tactical ele-
ment on a blackboard and then on the game field. Tactical elements taught
in the Technique approach came from Griffin, et al. (1997) and were com-
mon with those of the Games approach: maintaining possession of the ball,
creating space in attack, attacking the goal, defending space, defending the
goal, and restarting play.
For the Games group, each lesson began with a modified game design-
ed to stimulate tactical thinking. For modified games and tactical instruction
15 min. were allocated and 15 min. for practicing technique through drills.
The tactical elements taught in the Games approach were common to those
of the Technique approach. Many of the modified games presented during
the lessons are described in detail in Griffin, et al. (1997). Techniques taught
in the Games approach were the same.
Measures
Game performance.-The Game Performance Assessment Instrument by
Oslin, Mitchell, and Griffin (1998) was used as pre- and posttest measure of
soccer game performance. Decision Making referred to appropriate choices
about what to do with the ball, e.g., the player chooses to pass to an open
teammate. The Decision Making Index was calculated as the number of ap-
propriate decisions made divided by the number of inappropriate decisions
made. Technique execution was the efficient performance of a selected tech-
nique. The Technique Execution Index was calculated as the number of effi-
cient techniques executed divided by the number of inefficient technique ex-
ecutions. Support was the off-the-ball movement to a position to receive a
pass. The Support Index was calculated as the number of appropriate sup-
porting movements divided by the number of inappropriate supporting
movements. According to Oslin, et al. (1998) the above three game compo-
nents are important for successful soccer performance. The test-retest Pear-
son coefficients for Decision Making, Skill Execution, and Support were .62,
.64, and .78, respectively (p < .01).
Matches were videotaped at the beginning and at the end of the study.
Two soccer trainers of the professional league were coders who did not know
the students. Videos were evaluated by the first trainer and then by the sec-
ond one, without contact between them. The percentage agreement between
the trainers' ratings was 82% for Decision Making, 95 % for Skill Execution,
and 84% for Support.
Intrinsic motivation.-The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory of McAuley,
Duncan, and Tammen (1989) was administered in the beginning and at the
end of the intervention. The inventory's 18 items are rated on a Likert scale
 GIRLS' SOCCER PERFORMANCE 467

using anchors of 1: Strongly disagree and 7: Strongly agree. The four factors
are Interest-enjoyment, Perceived Competence, Effort-importance and Ten-
sion-pressure. Also, the generic label for activity in each item was suitably
reworded to reflect soccer.
Statistical Analysis
The paired-samples t test was applied to assess mean differences be-
tween the initial and final values of a variable in the same group. Separate
analyses of covariance were conducted to test mean differences between
groups. The final scores of the assessments were the dependent variables
and respective initial scores the covariates. Alpha was set at p < .05.
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics for game-play variables (Decision Making, Skill
Execution, and Support) and Intrinsic Motivation dimensions for the two ap-
proaches are presented in Table 1. According to Table 1, despite random as-
signment, the Games group had more favourable prescores than the Tech-
nique group on many dependent variables; however, the independent t test
on prescores showed that there were no significant mean differences between
groups initially. There was a significant improvement for the Technique
group only on Skdl Execution (t3,=5.08, p<.Ol). O n the contrary, the

TABLE 1
MEANS,STANDARD F RATIOSFORGAMEPERFORMANCE
DEVIATIONS,
VARIABLES
AND INTRINSIC
MOTIVATION
SCALES

Variable Technique Approach Game Approach F1 .69

Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest

M SD M SD M SD M SD
Decision Making .93 .99 1.06 .74 1.05 .91 1.63" 1.23 5.59"
Technique .66 .30 1.12" .58 .81 .47 1.09" .56 .94
Support .57 .37 .80 .82 .76 .56 1.62" .79 15.25"
Interest 3.73 1.71 3.57 1.85 3.76 1.48 4.2j41.64 7.16"
Competence 2.84 1.35 3.15* 1.24 2.97 1.28 3.66" 1.41 4.32"
Effort 4.14 1.69 4.37 1.53 4.12 1.74 4.85" 1.79 4.98"
Pressure 2.62 1.28 2.31 1.53 2.66 1.35 2.37 1.33 .O1
Total Intrinsic Motivation 3.33 1.11 3.35 1.10 3.38 1.0 3.78" 1.17 8.11"

Games group showed a significant improvement on all game play variables:

Decision Making (t,, = 2.47, p < .05), Skill Execution (t,, = 3.24, p < .01), and
Support (t,, = 8.11, p < .01). In differences in play, the Games group perform-
ed significantly better on Decision Making and Support than the Technique
group (Table I ) , but not for Skill Execution.
In the Technique group, the t test showed significant pre- to posttest
468 D. CHATZOPOULOS, ET AL.

improvement only on Perceived Competence (t,, = 2.10, p < .05), whereas the
Games group showed a significant improvement on Interest-enjoyment (t,, =
3.69, p < .05), Perceived Competence (t,,=5.16, p < .05), and Effort-impor-
tance (t,, =3.69, p < .05). Neither group showed significant changes between
pre- and postmeasures on the Tension-pressure dimension.
The Games group had higher scores on Interest-enjoyment, Perceived
Competence, and Effort-importance than the Technique group (Table 1))
but not on Tension-pressure. Furthermore, the Games group scored signifi-
cantly better on total Intrinsic Motivation than the Technique group.
DISCUSSION
This study examined the effects of Technique and Games approaches
on girls' soccer performance and motivation. Hypothesis 1, that there would
be no differences between the two approaches regarding tactical behaviour,
was not confirmed, as the Games group had significantly better Decision
Making scores, indicating that they knew what to do when in possession of
the ball, and on Support. Apparently, the way that tactics were taught in the
Technique group, by presentation on a blackboard, was not effective enough
to improve Decision Making. The positive effect of the Games approach on
tactical behaviour is consistent with the findings of other studies (Stuart &
Thorpe, 1997; Turner & Martinek, 1999).
Hypothesis 2, that the Technique group would perform better on skill
execution than the Games group because the Technique group spent more
time on technique practice, was not supported. This result is congruent with
findings of Stuart and Thorpe (1997) and Turner and Martinek (1992). Al-
though girls in the Games group had less practice time on skill learning per
session than the Technique group (15 min. vs 25 min.), they balanced this
time difference by practicing soccer techniques while playing the modified
games. For example, in the game 3 versus 3 with the aim to do three con-
secutive passes, girls not only learned how to move on the field to maintain
possession of the ball (e.g., give-and-go, tactical behaviour), but they also
practiced passing and receiving balls (technique).
Hypothesis 3, that the Games group would show greater Intrinsic Moti-
vation than the Technique group, was noted for posttraining means. This
positive effect of the Games approach on girls' motivation could be simply
that game play is more pleasant than technique practice. Teachers noticed
that girls in the Technique group quickly lost their motivation to practice
technique with drills because they considered this part of the lesson unnec-
essary. O n the contrary, during a modified game the girls in the Games
group experienced their lack of ability to solve tactical problems, e.g., in
give-and-go, passing and receiving the ball. This may have encouraged prac-
tice of techniques with drills after the modified game.
 GIRLS' SOCCER PERFORMANCE 469

These data may not have been consistent with the first two predictions
(Decision Making and Skill Execution) because there was some overlap be-
tween the two approaches in both groups. For example, both groups played
soccer at the end of each lesson. This was done to compare the results with
those of other studies in which students played the corresponding game at
the end of the lesson (French, Werner, Rink, Taylor, & Hussey, 1996; Tur-
ner & Martinek, 1999). The main difference between the two approaches
was that the Games approach focused on tactical instruction within modi-
fied games, whereas emphasis in the Technique approach was given to d r d s
on skills. Higher scores of the Games group on Decision Making and Inter-
est in the lesson may reflect this difference. In the Games group girls played
much more than those of the Technique group.
Finally, present results support the view that girls' intrinsic motivation
for soccer can be enhanced by the Games approach. If this finding be ro-
bust, then greater use of the Games approach may increase the number of
women who play soccer during leisure. This would continue the positive ef-
fects lifelong physical activity may have on physical and mental health. Con-
sidering the importance of intrinsic motivation as a mediator of persistence
in physical activities (Ryan & Deci, 2000), researchers could focus explora-
tion of girls7motivation within these approaches.
REFERENCES
ALLISON,I?, & BARRETT, K. (2000) Constructing children 's physical education experiences: under-
standing the content for teaching. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
BLOMQVIST, M., LUHTANEN, P., &LAAKso, L. (2001) Comparison of two types of instruction in
badminton. European Journal of Physical Education, 6, 139-155.
BROOKER, R., KIRK,D., BRAIUKA, S., &BRANSGROVE, A. (2000) Implementing a game sense ap-
proach to teaching junior high school basketball in a naturalistic setting. European Physi-
cal Education Review, 6, 7-26.
FRENCH,K., WERNER,P., RINK,K., TAYLOR, K., & HUSSEY,K. (1996) The effects of a 3-week
unit of tactical, skill, or combined tactical and skill instruction on badminton perfor-
mance of ninth-grade students. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 15, 418-438.
FRENCH,K., WERNER, P., TAYLOR,K., HUSSEY,K., &JONES,J. (1996) The effects of a 6-week
unit of tactical, skill, or combined tactical and skill instruction on badminton perfor-
mance of ninth-grade students. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 15, 439-463.
GALLAHUE, D. (1996) Developmental physical education for today's children. (3rd ed.) Chicago,
IL: Brown & Benchmark.
GREHAIGNE, J., GODBOUT, P., & BOUTHIER, D. (2001) The teaching and learning of decision
making in team sports. Quest, 53, 59-76.
GRIFFIN,L., MITCHELL, S., & OSLIN,J. (1997) Teachtizg sport concepts and skills: tactical games
approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
HOLT,W., STREAN, W., & BENGOECHEA, E. (2002) Expanding the Teaching Games for Under-
standing Model: new avenues for future research and practice. lournal of Teaching in
Physical Education, 2 1, 162-176.
MCAULEY, E., DUNCAN, T., &TAMMEN, V. (1989) Psychometric properties of the Intrinsic Moti-
vation Inventory in a competitive sport setting: a confirmatory factor analysis. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 60, 48-58.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. (1995) Moving into the future: na-
tional standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
470 D. CHATZOPOULOS, ET AL.

OSLIN,J., MITCHELL, S., &GRIFFIN,L. (1998) The Game Performance Assessment Instrument
(GPAI): development and preliminary validation. Journal of Teaching in Physical Educa-
tion, 17, 23 1-243.
RINK,J. (2001) Teaching physical education for learning. (4th ed.) Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
RYAN,R. M., & DECI, E. L. (2000) Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic
motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
STREAN, V., & HOLT,N. (2000) Players', coaches', and parents' perceptions of fun in youth
sport. Avante, 6, 84-98.
STUART,A., & THORPE,R. (1997) A comparison of the effectiveness of two approaches to
teaching games within physical education: a skills approach versus a games for under-
standing approach. British Journal of Physical Education, 28(3), 17-21.
THORPE,R., BUNKER, D., &ALMOND, L. (1986) Rethinking games teaching. Loughborough, UK:
Univer. of Technology, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science.
TURNER, A. (1996) Teaching for understanding: myth or reality? Journal of Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance, 67(4), 46-48.
TURNER, A., &MARTINEK, T. (1992) A comparative analysis of two models for teaching games
(techni ue approach and game centered-tactical focus-approach). International Journal of
~hysz'ca?ducati ion, 29(4), 15-31.
TURNER, A., & MARTINEK, T. (1995) Teaching for understanding: a model for improving deci-
sion-making during game play. Quest, 47, 44-63.
TURNER, A., &MARTINEK, T. (1999) An investigation into teaching games for understanding: ef-
fects on skill, knowledge, and game play. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70,
286-296.
WEIN,H. (2001) Developing youth soccer players. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
WERNER, P., THORPE,R., &BUNKER, D. (1996) Teaching games for understanding: evolution of
a model. Journal ofPhysica1 Education, Recreation and Dance, 67(1), 28-33.

Accepted September 19, 2006.