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(Download PDF) Book of Proof Hammack Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
(Download PDF) Book of Proof Hammack Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Book of Proof
Third Edition
Richard Hammack
Richard Hammack (publisher)
Department of Mathematics & Applied Mathematics
P.O. Box 842014
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia, 23284
Book of Proof
Edition 3
Cover by R. Hammack. The cover diagrams are based on a geometric construction that
renders a correct perspective view of an object (here an octagonal column) from its floor
plan. The method was invented by Piero della Francesca 1415–1492, a Renaissance painter
and mathematician. Piero was a great expositor. His writings explained why his methods
worked, not just how to apply them.
To my students
Contents
Preface vii
Introduction viii
I Fundamentals
1. Sets 3
1.1. Introduction to Sets 3
1.2. The Cartesian Product 8
1.3. Subsets 12
1.4. Power Sets 15
1.5. Union, Intersection, Difference 18
1.6. Complement 20
1.7. Venn Diagrams 22
1.8. Indexed Sets 25
1.9. Sets That Are Number Systems 30
1.10. Russell’s Paradox 32
2. Logic 34
2.1. Statements 35
2.2. And, Or, Not 39
2.3. Conditional Statements 42
2.4. Biconditional Statements 46
2.5. Truth Tables for Statements 48
2.6. Logical Equivalence 50
2.7. Quantifiers 53
2.8. More on Conditional Statements 56
2.9. Translating English to Symbolic Logic 57
2.10. Negating Statements 59
2.11. Logical Inference 63
2.12. An Important Note 64
3. Counting 65
3.1. Lists 65
3.2. The Multiplication Principle 67
3.3. The Addition and Subtraction Principles 74
3.4. Factorials and Permutations 78
3.5. Counting Subsets 85
3.6. Pascal’s Triangle and the Binomial Theorem 90
3.7. The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle 93
3.8. Counting Multisets 96
3.9. The Division and Pigeonhole Principles 104
3.10. Combinatorial Proof 108
v
9. Disproof 172
9.1. Counterexamples 174
9.2. Disproving Existence Statements 176
9.3. Disproof by Contradiction 178
Conclusion 291
Solutions 292
Preface to the Third Edition
PART I Fundamentals
• Chapter 1: Sets
• Chapter 2: Logic
• Chapter 3: Counting
Chapters 1 and 2 lay out the language and conventions used in all advanced
mathematics. Sets are fundamental because every mathematical structure,
object, or entity can be described as a set. Logic is fundamental because it
allows us to understand the meanings of statements, to deduce facts about
mathematical structures and to uncover further structures. All subsequent
chapters build on these first two chapters. Chapter 3 is included partly
because its topics are central to many branches of mathematics, but also
because it is a source of many examples and exercises that occur throughout
the book. (However, the course instructor may choose to omit Chapter 3.)
Chapter 2
Logic Chapter 3
Counting
Chapter 4
Direct Proof
§3.5 and §3.6 used in some exercises.
Ignore them if Chapter 3 is omitted.
Chapter 5
Contrapositive Proof
Chapter 6
Proof by Contradiction
Chapter 7
Non-Conditional Proof
Chapter 8
Proofs Involving Sets
Chapter 9
Disproof Chapter 10
Mathematical Induction
two exercises
§10.1 used in
Chapter 11
Relations
Chapter 12
Functions Chapter 13
Proofs in Calculus
Chapter 14
Cardinality of Sets
To the instructor. The book is designed for a three or four credit course.
A course emphasizing discrete mathematics could cover chapters 1–12. A
course that is more of a preparation for analysis could cover all but Chapter 3.
The following timetable (for a fourteen-week semester) is a hybrid of these
two options. Sections marked with ∗ may require only the briefest mention
in class, or may be best left for the students to digest on their own.
Fundamentals
CHAPTER 1
Sets
Here the dots indicate a pattern of numbers that continues forever in both
the positive and negative directions. A set is called an infinite set if it has
infinitely many elements; otherwise it is called a finite set.
Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements. Thus
© ª © ª
2, 4, 6, 8 = 4, 2, 8, 6 because even though they are listed in a different order,
© ª © ª
the elements are identical; but 2, 4, 6, 8 6= 2, 4, 6, 7 . Also
© ª © ª
. . . − 4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 . . . = 0, −1, 1, −2, 2, −3, 3, −4, 4, . . . .
We often let uppercase letters stand for sets. In discussing the set
© ª © ª © ª
2, 4, 6, 8 we might declare A = 2, 4, 6, 8 and then use A to stand for 2, 4, 6, 8 .
To express that 2 is an element of the set A , we write 2 ∈ A, and read this as
“2 is an element of A ,” or “2 is in A ,” or just “2 in A .” We also have 4 ∈ A , 6 ∈ A
and 8 ∈ A , but 5 ∉ A . We read this last expression as “5 is not an element of
A ,” or “5 not in A .” Expressions like 6, 2 ∈ A or 2, 4, 8 ∈ A are used to indicate
that several things are in a set.
4 Sets
Some sets are so significant that we reserve special symbols for them.
The set of natural numbers (i.e., the positive whole numbers) is denoted
by N, that is,
N = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . . .
© ª
is another fundamental set. The symbol R stands for the set of all real
numbers, a set that is undoubtedly familiar to you from calculus. Other
special sets will be listed later in this section.
© ª
Sets need not have just numbers as elements. The set B = T, F consists
of two letters, perhaps representing the values “true” and “false.” The set
© ª
C = a, e, i, o, u consists of the lowercase vowels in the English alphabet.
© ª
The set D = (0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1) has as elements the four corner points
of a square on the x- y coordinate plane. Thus (0, 0) ∈ D , (1, 0) ∈ D , etc.,
but (1, 2) ∉ D (for instance). It is even possible for a set to have other sets
© © ª© ªª
as elements. Consider E = 1, 2, 3 , 2, 4 , which has three elements: the
© ª © ª © ª
number 1, the set 2, 3 and the set 2, 4 . Thus 1 ∈ E and 2, 3 ∈ E and
© ª
2, 4 ∈ E . But note that 2 ∉ E , 3 ∉ E and 4 ∉ E .
Consider the set M = 00 00 , 10 01 , 11 01 of three two-by-two matrices. We
©£ ¤ £ ¤ £ ¤ª
© © ª ©© ªªª
This box analogy can help us think about sets. The set F = ;, ; , ;
may look strange but it is really very simple. Think of it as a box containing
three things: an empty box, a box containing an empty box, and a box
containing a box containing an empty box. Thus |F | = 3. The set G = N, Z
© ª
is a box containing two boxes, the box of natural numbers and the box of
integers. Thus |G | = 2.
A special notation called set-builder notation is used to describe sets
that are too big or complex to list between braces. Consider the infinite set
© ª
of even integers E = . . . , −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, . . . . In set-builder notation this
set is written as
E = 2n : n ∈ Z .
© ª
We read the first brace as “the set of all things of form,” and the colon as
“such that.” So the expression E = 2n : n ∈ Z reads as “E equals the set of
© ª
all things of form 2n, such that n is an element of Z.” The idea is that E
consists of all possible values of 2n, where n takes on all values in Z.
In general, a set X written with set-builder notation has the syntax
© ª
X = expression : rule ,
E = n ∈ Z : n is even ,
© ª
read “E is the set of all n in Z such that n is even.” Some writers use a bar
instead of a colon; for example, E = n ∈ Z | n is even . We use the colon.
© ª
y y y
x x x
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