GLOBALISATION

5.1 Perspectives on globalisation

Definition

Globalisation is the speed where connections can be made between people (ability to
travel), rapid movement of goods around the globe, services, information transferred
instantaneously

Globalisation is a process that through the speed of its occurrence, transforms the
nature of other processes which leads to global consequences.
Scholte, consequences include
- Internationalisation of ‘cross-border’ relations between countries
- Liberalisation of political and economic relationships
- Universalisation of cultural forces (TV)
- Modernisation (spread of social structures: capitalism, scientific rationalism,
industrialism)

Giddens argues that a feature of globalisation is the separation of time and space
(distanciation).

Globalisation makes the concept of distance irrelevant, allowing individuals to interact with
others who are not physically present without delays.
Social activity can break free from the constraints of time and space
Globalisation involves deterritorialization - no clear relationship between cultural, political and
economic activities and geographical locations

Distanciation and the compression of time and space create the preconditions for
disembedding- idea that things are separated from their original surroundings and contexts.
include:
- Objects disembedded from their original physical context of coinage (credit cards)
- Processes (electronic transfer of money from bank accounts)
- People in three ways:
1. Global communication between strangers in different parts of the world
(cyberspace, no physical existence)
2. Physical disembedding (how people define themselves in terms of
national/global identities)
3. Cultural disembedding (development of hybrid cultures, mixing elements
of different cultures to produce something new)
Baudrillard’s (1998) concept of simulacra- ‘representations that refer to other representations’-
captures the concept of disembedding
- A credit card is a simulation of money in the form of paper notes, which are a simulation
of an original object of value (a piece of gold)
- Individuals no longer buy things based on needs, needs no longer exist, only desires
created by advertising
- Where disembedding takes place (the ‘origins of the original’) are lost or hidden in time
and space. The simulation has the same general status as whatever it is stimulating-
both are as real as each other
- EX: a telephone call or email are as real as talking to someone face to face

Roland Robertson notes that globalisation is often accompanied by a contradictory movement

Globalisation is a combination of globalisation and localisation, where ‘global
events/processes interact with local events/processes’. Where the meaning and impact of
global cultural products, ideas and behaviours are interpreted and adapted to local setting
EX:
- Family: strong kin both locally and globally
- Business: operate globally but with local branches adapted to specific local rules
(Mcdonalds in India sells non-meat products due to vegetarian population)
- Idea of acting local helps global issues (local areas reducing carbon emissions and
climate change)
- Nation states becoming less powerful, decision making power made locally and globally
rather than national levels

Malone - global subcultures are a form of hybridity in contemporary societies, global styles given
unique local interpretation
HIP HOP - exists as global youth culture, however meaning of style interpreted differently
depending on cultural background and traditions. Globalisation creates tensions in
1. The local - in terms of cultural diversity
2. The global - in terms of homogeneity
Robertson - each influences and is influenced by the other

Appadurai rejects the idea that cultural inter-relationships flow ‘from the core to the periphery’
(where globalized cultural forms are picked up by individual culture). Rather, the
inter-relationships should be seen in terms of ‘’scapes’ - imagined worlds that cross borders
and are connected
- Ethnoscapes -> how different cultured people interact physically
- Technoscapes -> interaction of technology and its cultural adaptations
- Finanscapes -> interplay of financial relationships, effect on political and social cultures
- Mediascapes -> flow of information across societies and cultures
- Ideoscapes -> people’s interaction of exchange of images and ideas

However, a concern on globalisation is it will lead to creation of a single global culture, where
great diversity of human natures will disappear.
Globalisation increases spread of dominant culture, wiping out local variations of culture
(language and dialect). This is also sped up by electronic communications and media.

But also, we see that globalisation

- helps local cultures survive, seeming to be refreshed by globalisation.
- Marshall Mcluhan coined the term ‘global village’, suggesting that media has turned the
world into a village, with instant communication, people feel more informed of lives of
others and are more involved/responsible for these lives.

The significance of different dimensions of globalisation

(cultural, political, economic)
The term globalisation was more common after the end of the Cold War, with the collapse of
communism in Europe, the idea that the world shared a single future shaped by capitalism
became more acceptable.

Tony Blair (UK prime minister) referred to globalisation as the spread of neo-libeeral economic
policies - involving the end of restrictions on trade and movement of goods between nations
(however, In recent years, Trump turned against free trade, imposing tariffs on goods in the US,
which would argue that globalisation has reversed/stopped)

DISAGREEMENTS OF GLOBALISATION - HOW LONG IT HAS BEEN HAPPENING

- Some think that globalisation is an old process that recently accelerated due to
technological developments (when people in the 15th century were already exploring the
world through sea voyages
- Some see most human history as globalisation (Nayan Chanda), arguing that
globalisation of today is a continuation of a long historical process

DIMENSIONS

Cultural dimensions
Includes
- Global information and communication systems (internet)
- Global patterns of consumerism (clothing, diet, technology)
- Cosmopolitan lifestyle
- Global sports (olympics, world cup)
- Global tourism
Most globalised aspects are often highly visible aspects of Westerm or American consumer
cultures (fast food chains, jeans, hip-hop, rap, hollywood…)

Cultural globalisation has 2 opposed tendencies

1. Diversity (difference)
 2. Homogenisation (similarity)
Which gives societies different outcomes
- Producing cultural hybrids based on mixing of cultures in places and practices
- Produce arguments, where spread of ideas and images provoke reactions and
resistance within cultural groups

Political dimensions
- The spread of the political system of liberal democracy (political parties, elections,
freedom to speak/vote),spread of human rights, gender equality.
- Less importance on nation states, more on global entities (ex: EU)
- Nation states given more political power to smaller/local political structures
- Nation states problems too big to deal (climate change, pollution, terroism)

Economic dimensions
In terms of mobility - increasing global nature of stock markets based on
- Capital mobility - companies move into different countries as need for profit dictate
- Labour mobility - people physically moving for work
- Information mobility - develop range of global financial services

Globalisation of economic relationships grows transnational corporations (TNCs) - corporations

that are based in a specific territory but operate in different countries.

Development of the internet - economic activity taken place in virtual trading communities. This
would mean
- Breakdown of differences between local, national, international and global > ex:
disembedding is encouraged through developments of credit cards
- Economic activity occurring in production and distribution - goods and services created
in one country sold around the globe
Production now involves global commodity chains - when raw materials needed for
manufacture will be from different countries and the finish products will be sold in other
countries. This network is significant as it creates economic structures (hierarchies)
Highly developed countries ^ of global commodity chain, exploiting products by using cheap
labour in developing countries.
Unequal economic relationships create dependency networks that are difficult to break.
Developing countries are the source for cheap production, so they depend on the flor of cheap
goods to maintain living standards.

The nature of global networks illustrated by

The Japanese eat poultry fattened in Thailand with American corn, using chopsticks made with
wood from Indonesian forests; Canadians eat strawberries grown in Mexico with American
fertiliser. British eat green beans from Kenya and cocoa from Ghana finds its way into Swiss
chocolate
For some writers, economic globalisation means the world has entered a new phase of
economic development. Castells argues that economic behaviour has entered the
development of globalised capitalism - where older forms of capitalism focused on production,
newer forms focus on knowledge, information and systems. This means that information is now
the primary product, which suggests that globalisation is the driver for a new phase of capitalist
economic production, distribution and exchange.

HOWEVER,
Globalisation is not truly global, but partial or regional. Thompson argues that the world is
divided into 3 major regional economic blocks:
1. North and Central America
2. Europe
3. Asia
While economic globalisation may take place within each regional bloc, there is limited
competition between them, other parts of the world would be excluded.

Economic globalisation is associated with neo-liberal economics -trade without restrictions

(tariffs, duties). This caused a global financial crisis and economic recession in 2008. Which is
evident of globalisation, where problems in one country spread quickly

Perspectives on who benefits from globalisation

Marxism
Marx emphasised how successful capitalism is at creating wealth and how an integrated
capitalist world system is an essential step towards an equal socialist system in the future

World system’s theory (Immanuel Wallerstein’s view of global capitalism)

Globalisation
> development of global capitalist economic system, every country has a stake
> the development is seen in context of global systems and networks

Wallerstein suggest that world economic system has 3 types of regions

1. Core regions - most highly developed economics. First to develop capitalist economies,
characterised by
- Strong central governments
- Highly developed industrial bases
- Well-developed bureaucratic administrations
2. Periphery (Fringe) regions - underdeveloped countries defined by unequal relationship
with core regions
Characterised by
- Weak government controlled by native elites
- Serve as source for raw materials, surplus labour, captive markets
 - Remain undeveloped as it is locked into political and economic structure that
reproduces subordinate status
3. Semi- peripheral regions - between core and periphery, may aspire to core
membership, or former core members whose economic development has declined
Characterised by
- Exploited by core regions, but themselves exploit those of periphery economy
Countries and regions can move between the levels as capitalism moves wherever profit can be
made

Feminism
Globalisaion poses for women and other groups who face injustice,
Recognize intersectionality - systems of oppression interact so that gender injustices cannot
be understood only in terms of gender. Gender indeed interacts with social class, race and
ethnicity, sexual orientation and disability to affect women around the world in different ways.
Gender injustice takes form in social, cultural, geographical locations.

Issues that have a gender dimension (domestic violence, child marriage, discrimation at work)
For discrimination at work, it is mainly women in factories in developing countries (bangladesh,
Cambodia). Women face low paid, working conditions, sexual harassment and compulsory
overtime. However, it could be argued that the employment of women can be seen as a step
forward in the patriarchal society where opportunities for women would have been non-existent.

Issues that at first seem to be gender neutral (war, migration, climate change)
In the globalisation period, migration involved women providing care for people in developed
countries, Hochschild described as ‘global care chains’ - involving exchange of services.

Women in developed country able to enter workforce, often in jobs paid by global standard and
enables them to pay others to do domestic work and care for children
> creating demand for domestic work, filled by migrant women from less developed regions,
working as domestic nannies, sending earning to family in home country (remittances)

Globalisation affects women

- On a whole: benefits world’s wealthiest, including women in developed countries
- Widen economic inequalities, disadvantaging women
Positive aspects:
- Globalisation helped supernational organisations (UN) draw attention to gender issues
(education, sexual violence, sex trafficking) pressuring nation states to change
- Creates opportunity for women around the world to work together
- Create transnational networks of people with shared political commitments.
- Spread of ideas about gender equality, which helps women around the world argue for
justice.

Postmodernism
Emphasises choice and consumerism (limited in developing countries)
Globalisation is often seen as one of the developments associated with post modernism, with
development of the internet and social media.
Globalisation contributes to developing countries today becoming postmodern.

Postmodernists argue that explanations (metanarratives) no longer apply, Globalisation itself is

a metanarrative, defined as an unstoppable spread of neoliberalism - ideology promoting the
interests of the powerful.

They view globalisation as many changes (some contradictory), instead of a single process
View globalisation as leading to hybridity and diversity rather than homogenisation; globalisation
makes possible unique blends of the local and the global.

Globalist perspective (optimistic view of globalisation)

Sees globalisation
- Spread of neo-liberal economics and a positive process involving economic growth,
increasing prosperity and democracy.
- Removes obstacles to free trade/capitalism, helping developing countries move out of
poverty
- Restricts power of nation states, gives them restricted role in economy, making trade
easier and helps capitalism expand
- Spreads Western values (individualism and business - entrepreneurialism)
- Freer movements of goods and enterprises, leading to more jobs, with wealth trickling
down to benefit everyone
Where developing nations are reluctant to adopt necessary neo-liberal changes, transnational
organisations have steered them in the right direction through structural adjustment
programmes. (TNCs)
TNCs invest in developing countries, creating jobs and encouraging people to aspire to a better
standard of living and Western lifestyle.
These changes lead to
- greater freedom, human rights, democracy, accompanying free market economies
- Bring homogenised global culture , old values and traditions replaced with values that fit
with global capitalism

Globalisation sceptics (global pessimists)

Globalisation seen as
- Benefiting developed countries more than developing one, unfairly redistributes
resources
 - Global spread of neo-liberalism widens gap between rich and poor
- Works in favour of already wealthy (privileged), tool used to main dominant position in
world economy
Not opposed to globalisation but opposed to its neo-liberal from.
Culturally, globalisation
- Involves cultural imperialism, domination of western culture in expense of local culture,
believes that local culture is a part of rich cultural heritage that should be preserved
- Developing nations are at risk of losing distinctive culture when flooded with attractive
and cheap western consumer products (clothing, food, music, art)
Globalisation is the continuation of long-standing historical trenches which divide the
world - where globalisation makes division deeper.

Transformationalism
Globalisation is a complex process involving exchanges between global institutions and local
cultures. Because it is complex, there are apparent contradictory trends (evident that nation
states are still powerful but also less important)
Sees globalisation as controllable, can be steered in positive directions and does not
necessarily have unavoidable consequences
Culturally, rather than destroying local cultures, the two can merge to create a new and vibrant
hybrid, enriching than weakening. (new forms of music can combines traditional and modern)