Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer

Tags

CHAPTER 1

📖 Chapter 1 KEY TERMS

antecedent conditions modus tollens
applied research observation
basic research parsimony

cause-and-effect relationship pseudoscience

commonsense psychology psychology experiment
data replication
empirical data science
experimentation scientific method
good thinking subject

laws theory
measurement treatment

methodology

psychology
the science of behavior

psychologists take a scientific approach to studying behavior using the scientific method in conducting psychological research

science methodology data

latin : scientia the scientific techniques used to collect and facts and figures we gather or collect
evaluate data using scientific methods
content (what we know)
different processes, techniques, or
process (the systematic
methodologies are used to gain knowledge
way knowledge is
obtained) research can be done in controlled or natural
settings

commonsense psychology
nonscientific data gathering (Heider)

uses nonscientific sources of data (opinions of friends, family, attractive people) and nonscientific inference

the way we behave is based on data we gathered throughout our lifetime and shapes our expectations and beliefs towards
others

nonscientific inference
the nonscientific use of information to explain or predict behavior

the gambler’s fallacy stereotyping

the misuse of data to estimate the probability of an event falsely assumes specific behaviors cluster together in
certain kinds of people
overuse of trait explanations
ignores individual differences
when used to explain behavior, we make unwarranted
dispositional attributions and underuse situational overconfidence bias
information
feeling more confident about conclusions than is warranted
this bias can reduce the accuracy of our explanations and by available data
predictions

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 1

 leads to stereotypes can result in erroneous conclusions when limitations of
supporting data are not recognized

the scientific method 📎 laws

consist of
the steps taken to gather and verify information, answer questions, explain relationships, and
communicate this information to others statements
created from
needed to be able to rely on conclusions and use them as general principles to predict
exhaustive
behavior across many settings & conditions
empirical support

can be applied in
characteristics of modern science
all situations;
scientific mentality useful in physical
sciences
assumes that behavior follows a natural order and can be predicted
in psychology,
essential to science as there is no point to using the scientific method to gather and analyze laws are less
data if there is no implicit order useful as we
cannot predict
gathering empirical data
behavior all the

📖
time
empirical data

📖
data that is observable or experienced
parsimony (Occam’s
razor)
seeking general principles
is preferring the

📖 theory

a scientific explanation of an observed phenomenon and a way we attempt to

simplest useful
and logical
explanation
explain behavior

📎
well-documented, well-supported, well-substantiated explanation for observations;
never 100% proven, but it is close principle of modus
tollens
integrates diverse data, explains behavior, and predicts new instances of behavior
allows us to
examples: classical conditioning, Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development,
disprove
Freud’s theory of psychosexual development
statements using
a single, contrary
observations
good thinking
we can never
is a central feature and critical to the scientific method
prove a
occurs when data collection and interpretation are systematic, objective, and rational statement
must be open to new ideas even if they contradict previous ones because a
contradictory
must follow the data even if you don’t like where it is going
observation
might be found
self-correction
later
the content of science changes as new scientific information is acquired and old information
is reevaluated in light of new facts

scientific explanations and theories are challenged and revised or replaced

Sir Karl Popper proposed that science advances by revising theories based on the “weight of
evidence”

the more evidence that accumulates to support a particular explanation or theory, the
more confidence we have that the theory is correct

publicizing results
continuous exchange of information is vital to the scientific process

replication
an exact or systematic repetition of a study

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 2

 the ability to repeat procedures and get the same results again if data is collected objectively
and good thinking is followed
advances science by increasing our confidence in experimental results by adding to the
weight of supporting evidence
the objectives of psychological science
many scientific research methods can be used to acquire knowledge; each is a little different but contribute to one or more
objective of psychological science
description
a systematic and unbiased account of observed
characteristics of behaviors
case studies and field studies
prediction
the capability of knowing in advance when certain
behaviors would be expected to occur through identified
other conditions that are linked with them
correlational and quasi-experimental designs
applied vs basic research
applied research : addresses real-world problems
basic research : tests theories and explains psychological
phenomena
the scientific method: tools of
psychological science
observation
the systematic noting and recording of events
systematic : the procedures are consistently applied to
each observation to avoid biases and manipulation of
data
only events that are observable can be studied scientifically
must be objective
measurement
assigns numbers to objects, events, or characteristics
inherent feature of quantitative research
experimentation
the process used to test the predictions we call hypotheses
and establish cause-and-effect relationships
systematic manipulation of aspects of a setting to verify our
predictions about observable behavior under certain
specific conditions
Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer
explanation
knowledge of the conditions that reliably produce the
occurrence of a behavior
when we explain a behavior, we also understand what
causes it to occur
experiments explain behavior
control
the use of scientific knowledge to influence behavior
once behavior has been explained through experimentation,
it may be possible to use that knowledge to create change
or improve behavior
requirements for an experiment
control
manipulation
random assignment
random selection
must have procedures for manipulating the setting
the predicted outcome must be observable
must be able to measure the outcome
must be able to manipulate the independent variable and
measure its effect on the dependent variable
ethical concerns or technological limitations may prevent
experimentation
specifying antecedent conditions
the circumstances that come before the event of
behavior that we want to explain
in psychology, antecedent conditions are called
treatments
given to a person to see if it causes an effect
atleast two treatment conditions and randomly assigning
subjects to these conditions
allows comparison in the two groups to one another
the placement of people or subjects is controlled by
random assignment
in psychology experiments, we control extraneous
variable so we know we can measure “what we intend to
measure”
how an experiment establishes cause and
effect
3
 an experiment attempts to establish a cause-and-effect
relationship between the antecedent conditions or
treatment, or independent variable (IV) and subject’s
behavior or the dependent variable (DV)

experiments establish a temporal relationship because

cause must precede effects

we look for differences in behavior after subjects were

exposed to the treatment, not before; not all prior events
are causes

pseudo-sciences
any field of study that gives the appearance of being scientific but has no true scientific basis and has not been confirmed using
the scientific method

modern pseudo-sciences

past life regression : using hypnosis to uncover past life

reparenting : therapist acting like the parent of the patient while regressing them to a child-like state to give them the parenting
they lacked

rebirthing : child is forcibly restrained until enraged then when crying parent can bond with child, used for adopted children

CHAPTER 2

📖 CHAPTER 2 KEY TERMS

animal rights fraud

animal welfare informed consent

anonymity institutional review board (IRB)

at risk minimal risk

confidentiality plagiarism

debriefing risk/benefit analysis

Research Ethics
READ : PAP Code of Ethics

a framework of values within which we conduct research

help researchers identify actions we consider good and bad, and explain the principles by which we make responsible
decisions in actual situations

consider the welfare and safety of both animals and humans who we do research with;

certain types of research can never be done, even though it would provide exceptional knowledge on a topic area

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) informed consent

are composed of laypeople and researchers the process where relevant details of the
experiment are explained
universities and hospitals should always have IRBs, but not all
institutions do includes risks and benefits

evaluate research proposals to ensure that does not extend to the deception or the
hypothesis
researchers follow ethical standards and
a subject or guardian agrees in writing to the
participants are protected
subject’s participation

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 4

 decide whether a proposed study increases participants’ risk of ethical researchers cannot coerce participants to
injury since psychological research can cause physical and/or agree to be in the study or prevent participants from
psychological discomfort discontinuing the study

help estimate the degree of risk involved in their studies

consent form
safeguard the subject’s rights by making sure each subject has
given informed consent subjects must be fully informed about the study

💡
including how long it will take and the ability to
all research have risks ask questions

researches must accurately estimate the degree of risk in subjects must give consent freely, without
research which is done by reading the literature and coercion
consulting with colleagues subjects must be informed that they can
research participants should be informed about potential discontinue at any time
risks, even if it is minimal (e.g. being uncomfortable to subjects must not be asked to waive their legal
answer certain question) rights in the case of injury

researchers must make potential risks and benefits

at risk
studies that increase the chance of harm compared with not
participating in the study
minimal risk
studies that do not increase the likelihood of injury
risk that is no greater in probability and severity than that ordinarily
encountered in daily life or during the performance of routine
physical or psychological examinations or tests
clear to subjects
researchers must provide assurance that all
information collected will remain private and
confidential
consent must be in writing that is clear and
understandable to the subjects; subjects should
receive a copy of it
if subject is a minor, a parent or legal guardian
must give consent

observations of public behavior, anonymous questionnaires, and minors must still be given as much detail about
archival research usually fall into the minimal risk category the study as possible, for their age

informed consent is not always mandated in minimal risk studies minors age 7 and above must give assent, or
agree to participate

when should IRB approve an “at risk” study assent must also be obtained for those who are
cognitively impaired
when a risk/benefit analysis determines that risks to participants
are outweighed by gains on knowledge the hypothesis should not be revealed

three principles emphasized by the Belmort

the Belmort Report
Report
was created partly because of the Tuskegee
syphilis trials respect for persons
the need for ethical principles became evident after individuals have the right of self-determination (basis of informed
World War II crimes consent)

Nuremberg Code of 1947 : the basis of today’s each human being has the right to make their own decisions about
ethical standards; has since been expanded research

provisions must be made for vulnerable populations

📎 the Tuskegee syphilis trials

initially involved 600 Black men – 399

with syphilis, 201 who did not have the
disease
they were “treated” with penicillin
participants’ informed consent was not
collected
beneficence
minimize harm and maximize potential benefits (basis of risk/benefit
analysis)
justice
fairness in both the burdens and benefits of research
people cannot be selected for research just because they are
disadvantaged or easily manipulated

APA ethical guidelines

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 5

 published for research in 1971

apply to psychologists and students when they assume the role of psychologists during research practice

participants may be considered to be at minimal risk

privacy laws welfare of animal subjects

the humane care and treatment of animals
HIPPA (Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability) regulated by the Animal Welfare of 1966 (US)

prevent medical records from being used for research deals with general standards for animals
without written consent from participants
amended in 1991 to include new regulations that address
passed in 2003 the psychological well-being of higher animals and the
provision of enrichment to nonhuman primates and
anonymity other animals that live in social groups
subjects are not identified by name Republic Act 8485 – Animal Welfare Act of 1998
achieved by collecting data without names and assigning institutions that conduct animal research must establish an
code numbers Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) to
evaluate animal research
confidentiality
must determine that the researchers have explored all
data are securely stored alternatives and have documented there are no other
data are only used for the purpose explained to the subject feasible alternatives

animal rights
deception sensate species (those that can feel pain and suffer) have
may be used when it is the best way to obtain information equal value and rights to humans
may not be used to minimize the participants’ perception of became a hot issue in 1984 when the heart of a healthy
risk or exaggerate their perception of potential benefits baboon was transplanted in a dying baby

steps researchers must take if deception is used

subjects must be allowed to withdraw from the experiment
scientific fraud
at any time and should never face coercion involves falsifying or fabricating data

debriefing : full disclosure is motivated by a researcher’s graduation, tenure,

promotion, funding, or reputation
should be provided after either their personal

📖
participation or the completion of the entire study
further reading : Sir Cyril Burt on intelligence and
involves explaining the true nature and purpose of the
genes
experiment

an essential component of good experimental research

main lines of defense against fraud
offers participants a full explanation of the study any
time that deception is used peer review process : filters submitted manuscripts so that
only 15-20% of articles are printed
confederate replication : attempts to reproduce the findings of others
an experimenter’s accomplice
plagiarism
use of a confederate is deceptive because subjects are led
to believe that the confederate is another subject, misrepresenting someone’s ideas, words, or written work as
experimenter, or bystander, when they are actually part of your own
the experimental manipulation a form of fraud in which an individual claims false credit for
another’s work

ethical issues involved in research reports

authorship credit should only be given to those who made a major contribution to the research or writing

researchers should not take credit for the same research more than once

the ethical solution is to cite original publications when republishing data in a journal article or republishing journal articles in an
edited volume

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 6

 CHAPTER 3

📖 CHAPTER 3 KEY TERMS

archival study paradigm
case study participant-observer study

deviant case analysis phenomenology

empirical phenomenology qualitative research
external validity reactivity
field study retrospective data

internal validity systematic observation

naturalistic observation unobtrusive measure

nonexperimental approaches 💡 validity of inferences

in qualitative research, there are many sources of

do not create levels of an independent variable nor
randomly assign subjects to these levels potential bias

used where experiments are not ethical or possible, or to data might be influenced by the researcher’s
test hypotheses in realistic conditions own viewpoint

a subject may be influenced by the presence

internal validity of a researcher
the degree to which a researcher can establish a causal qualitative researchers consider the reproducibility
relationship between independent and dependent variables of their conclusions
high internal validity : when only the antecedent conditions
are responsible for group differences in behavior

an internally valid experiment allows us to draw cause-and-

effect conclusions
💡 laboratory experiments are often higher in internal
validity because of their control of extraneous
variables
external validity
researchers create levels of the IV and use
the degree to which research findings can be generalized to procedures like matching and random assignment
other settings and individuals to conditions

the degree of manipulation of antecedent

💡
conditions
non-experimental studies achieve higher external
the assignment of subjects to antecedent conditions (IV)
validity than laboratory experiments
created for the experiment
due to being conducted in real-world settings with
the degree of imposition of units a more diverse sample of participants than
how much you limit a subject’s responses on the DV experiments

phenomenology
involves a subject’s description of personal subjective experience

first hand experience of a person in a certain phenomenon

low in manipulation of antecedent conditions and low in imposition of units (low-low)

case studies
a descriptive study of a subject’s experiences, observable behaviors, and archival records kept by an outside observer

range from low-low to low-high

strengths of the case study approach deviant case analyses

source of inferences, hypotheses, and theories deviant individuals are compared with those who are not to
identify the significant differences between them
source of therapy techniques

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 7

 allow study of rare phenomena may also be applied to nonclinical issues such as social
trends and adult morale
provide exceptions to accepted ideas, theories, and
practices
retrospective data
persuasive and motivational value (advertising)
recollections of past events that are collected in the present

limitations of the case study approach childhood memories constitute retrospective data

representativeness of sample an undergraduate portfolio does not since it was

collected in the past
data can not be generalized to a population
risks of using retrospective data
completeness of data
information may be compromised by faulty memory, current
reliance on retrospective data
mood, and the retrieval cues that are present when asked to
recall an event

field studies
nonexperimental studies conducted in the field or real-life
📎 field experiments vs. field studies

field experiments : experiments are conducted in

settings where antecedent conditions are not manipulated real-life settings
range from low-low to low-high field studies : nonexperimental designs used in
real-life settings
naturalistic observation
include naturalistic observation, unobtrusive
examination of subjects’ spontaneous behavior in their
measures, participant-observer studies, and
actual environments and may obtain more representative
surveys
behavior than experiments

can achieve high levels of external validity

participant-observer study 📖 systematic observation : the use of a prearranged

involves field observation in which the researcher is part of
the studied group
contrasts with naturalistic observation, where the
researcher does not interact with research subjects to avoid
reactivity
often difficult to remain objective and unbiased
ethical problems
invasion of privacy, not telling people that you are studying
their behavior, and pretending to be a group member
strategy for recording observations in which each
observation is recorded using specific rules or
guidelines so that observations are more objective
reactivity : the tendency of subjects to alter their
behavior when they know that they are being
observed
unobtrusive (inconspicuous) measures : behavioral
indicators that can be observed without the subject’s
knowledge; opposite of obtrusive or conspicuous
measures

pretending to be a group member is a serious problem that

requires careful planning

archival study
a descriptive method where researchers
reexamine data that were collected for other purposes

qualitative research
research that obtains data consisting of words instead of numbers

obtained through self-reports, personal narratives, and expression of ideas, memories, feelings, and thoughts

used to know and describe an experience to understand its meaning and extract meaningful common themes

invaluable in studying contextual phenomena, behavior that can only be understood within its context

an increased use of qualitative research may represent a paradigm shift

📖 paradigm : the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, methods, and procedures accepted within a particular discipline during a
specific time period

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 8

 empirical phenomenology
contemporary phenomenology

sources of data :

the researcher’s self-reflection on relevant experiences

participants’ oral are written descriptions of their experiences

accounts from literature, poetry, visual art, television, theatre, and previous phenomenological (and other) research

data is collected, evaluated, and validated by the study’s participants to verify and offer corrections, if needed

CHAPTER 4

📖 Chapter 4 KEY TERMS

cluster sampling random selection

content analysis ratio scale

context effects reliability
continuous dimension representativeness

convenience sampling response set

interval scale response style
latent content sample of subjects

level of measurement sampling

manifest content simple random sampling
nay-sayers snowball sampling

nominal scale stratified random sampling

nonprobability sampling survey research
ordinal scale systematic random sampling
population validity

position preference willingness to answer

probability sampling yea-sayers
purposive sampling

quota sampling

survey research
obtains data about opinions, attitudes, preferences, and behaviors using questionnaires or interviews to make descriptions
about a population

allows researchers to study private experience, which cannot be directly observed

surveys are usually written or face to face

advantages of survey research

efficiently collect large amounts of data

anonymous surveys can increase the accuracy of answers to sensitive questions

allows to draw inferences about the causes of behavior and can complement laboratory and field experiments

📖 inferences : conclusions based on evidence

limitations of the survey research

does not allow to test hypotheses about causal relationships because we do not manipulate independent variables and control
extraneous variables

low in manipulation of antecedents

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 9

 can be low or high in imposition of units

constructing surveys
data collected may be invalid because of errors in the survey

major steps in constructing surveys

1. identify specific research objectives

2. decide on the degree of imposition of units (degree of response restriction)

high imposition - closed questions; structured questions; must be answered by one of a limited number of alternatives

low imposition - respondents can say or write what they want; open-ended questions

open-ended questions can often be used to clarify or expand answers to closed questions

answers to open-ended questions must be quantified through a system designed to evaluate and categorize the content
of each answer

3. decide how you will analyze the survey data based on the imposition of units

high imposition - statistics

low imposition - qualitative methods

problems with survey questions

ambiguous : people don’t understand what the question is asking

too complex : uses a double negative in a sentence or a word whose meaning is difficult to understand

double barreled : two ideas are present in the question

📖 content analysis : coding behaviors using systematic observational techniques; responses are assigned to categories that
are created from the data according to objective rules or guidelines

measuring responses

📖 level of measurement : the kind of scale used to measure a response

nominal scale : classifies response items into two or more distinct categories on the basis of some common feature
ordinal scale : a rank ordering of response items
interval scale : measures magnitude or quantitative size using measures with equal interval between the values; no true
zero point

ratio scale : equal intervals between all values and a true zero point

selecting levels of measurement

the best type of scale to use depends on :

the nature of the variable being studied

the level of precision desired

the level of measurement needs to fit the variable being measured

continuous dimension : traits, attitudes, and preferences that can use different levels of measurement

when working with certain variable like sociability, psychologists often select the highest scale possible since it provides
more information and allows analysis using more powerful statistics

important considerations for survey items

engage respondents by asking interesting questions

the first survey question should be :

relevant to the survey’s central topic

easy to answer

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 10

 interesting

answerable by most respondents

closed format

the first few questions should be ones that

subjects do not have to think about a great deal

subjects are able to answer without saying “I don’t know”

subjects will think are relevant to the topic of the survey

consider collecting demographic information (people’s vital statistics) at the end of the questionnaire

make sure questions are not value laden

do not word questions in ways that a positive or negative response would seem embarrassing or undesirable

keep ethical guidelines in mind when writing survey questions

response styles
tendencies to respond to questions or test items in specific
📖 manifest content : the plain meaning of the words that
appear on the page
ways, regardless of the content context effects : changes in question interpretation
due to their position within a survey

buffer items : questions unrelated to either of the

related questions

willingness to answer yes-saying

when questions require specific knowledge, the tendency to agreeing with an item regardless of its manifest content;
guess or omit items when unsure response acquiescence

unwillingness to answer is often a problem in survey

nay-saying
research
disagreeing with an item regardless of its manifest content;
omittance of answers to key questions make both scoring
response deviation
and interpretation difficult
yes/nay-saying can be controlled by mixing questions
dealt with by telling subjects to guess or that there are
no right or wrong answers

position preference
selecting answer based on its position

can influence the selection of answers in multiple-choice

questions

collecting survey data

📖 social desirability response set

representing one’s self in a socially appropriate fashion when responding to a question’s latent content

when a subject responds to a question in a way to make himself look good in the experimenter’s eyes

latent content : underlying meaning

response set : the tendency for people to respond to questions in a way that paints a certain picture of themselves instead
of providing honest answers

self-administered written questionnaires mail

keep instructions simple and clear always include a cover letter that is polite

control for reactivity by giving privacy include a stamped envelope for return

keep anonymous response rates are between 45% to 75%

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 11

 if questions can be embarrassing, be prepared to minimize if possible, include a small gift
discomfort by giving privacy, not looking at their response,
keep track of those who do not return it; consider a second
assuring anonymity
mailing

computer and internet when nonreturn rate is high, consider bias

can use programs such as surveymonkey.com and

telephone surveys
surveygizmo.com
large scale telephone surveys use random digit dialing
allows for easier collection and analyses
allows for a wider sample
less concern with social desirability
response rate for phone surveys is 60% to 90%
interviews
most expensive and time consuming method

female interviewers tend to be more successful than male

must be able to establish a rapport

best results come when interviewer

focus groups
small groups of people with similar characteristics, all
women, or all teachers

the interviewer is called the facilitator

guides the group

evaluating surveys and survey data

reliability : the extent to which the survey is consistent and repeatable

validity : the extent to which the survey measures the intended topic

does it measure what you want it to measure?

does performance on the survey predict actual behavior

pretesting the questionnaire helps ensure surveys are answered in the way intended, increasing its validity

sample & population

sampling : deciding who will fill out the survey
population : consists of all people, animals, or objects that share at least one characteristic
sample : a subset of the population of interest

📖 generalizability : how accurately findings can be generalized from a given sample to a population depends upon its
representativeness
representativeness : how closely the sample mirrors the larger population

probability sampling
selecting subjects in a way that the odds of their being in the study are known or can be calculated

must use an unbiased method of choosing the participant

random selection : the process where any member of the population has an equal opportunity to be selected

advantages of probability sampling

a probability sample is more likely to represent the population than a nonprobability sample

knowledge of the exact odds of members of the populations being included in the sample

four methods of probability sampling

simple random sampling : selection of a portion of the population in a random way

systematic random sampling : selection of every nth person from a list of all the people in the population in an unbiased way

stratified random sampling : random sampling from people in each subgroup in the same proportions as they exist in the
population

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 12

 cluster sampling : sampling of entire clusters or naturally occurring groups that exist in the population

nonprobability sampling
subjects are not chosen at random

four methods of nonprobability sampling

quota sampling : having to fill a number of participants to reflect the proportions of important subgroups

convenience sampling : using the most available groups; accidental sampling

limited external validity

purposive sampling : selecting a sample who are needed for the purpose of a study

snowball sampling : locating a few people who fit the sample criterion and asks them to locate additional individuals; utilizes
referrals

reporting samples
the way a sample is chosen influences research results, it’s interpretation, and conclusions

information that should be reported :

any details that may have influenced the type of subject participating in the study (e.g. payment)

any limitations on who could participate

participants who were selected but dropped out or their data was discarded

details give necessary information to :

evaluate the generalizability of the results

compare the results of different studies

replicate the study

CHAPTER 5

📖 CHAPTER 5 KEY TERMS

coefficient of determination negative correlation
correlation nonequivalent groups design
correlational study partial correlation
cross-sectional study positive correlation

ex post facto study pretest/posttest design

linear regression analysis quasi-experimental designs
longitudinal design regression line
multiple correlation scatterplot
multiple regression analysis simple correlation
subject variable

correlation
the degree of relationship between two traits, behaviors, or events

used to establish relationships among preexisting variables

can be used to predict one set of behaviors from another

e.g. predict college grades based on high school grades

shows the relationship between antecedent conditions and behavioral effects but the antecedents are preexisting, not
manipulated

low manipulation of antecedents; high imposition of units

can not be sure of cause

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 13

 has poor internal validity but good external validity

correlational study
one that is designed to determine the correlation, or degree of relationship, between two traits, behaviors, or events

when two things are correlated, changes in one are associated with changes in the other

used to explore behavior that are not yet well understood

selected traits or behaviors of interest are measured first

numbers or scores are recorded that represent the measured variable

the degree of relationship between the numbers is determined through statistical procedures

once a correlation is known it can be used to make predictions

the higher the correlation, the more accurate the prediction will be

📖 variable : any observable behavior, characteristic, or event that can vary or have different values
simple correlations : relationships between pairs of scores from each subject

calculating correlations
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient or (r)
a statistic used to calculate a correlation

when r is computed, there are three possible outcomes

positive correlation

if the r value is positive, then there is a positive correlation between the variables

as one variable increases, the other decreases and vice versa

negative correlation

if the r value is negative, then there is a negative correlation between the variables called an inverse relationship

as one variable increases, the other decreases

no relationship

if the absolute value of correlation is close to 0, then there is no relationship between the variables

the values of a correlation coefficient range between -1.0 and +1.0

the sign ( + or - ) indicates whether the relationship is positive or negative

the absolute value of r indicates the strength of the relationship

the closer it is to 1.00, the stronger it is

strong relationships allow for good predictions

used to calculate simple correlations and may be expressed as: r(50) = +.70, p=.001

four properties of correlation coefficients :

linearity : how the relationship between X and Y can be plotted as a line (linear relationship) or a curve (curvilinear
relationship)

sign : refers to whether the correlation coefficient is positive or negative

magnitude : the strength of the correlation coefficient, ranging from -1 to +1

probability : the likelihood of obtaining correlation coefficient of this magnitude due to chance

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 14

 scatterplot
a graphic display of pairs of data points on the x and y axes

demonstrates the direction of a correlation

often the first step in analyzing the correlation

each dot stands for a person’s scores

each person has two scores

regression lines (or lines of best fit)

lines drawn on the scatterplot that best describes the linear relationship between measured scores

features of data that affect correlation coefficients

curvilinear relationships
sometime a correlation coefficient value can be close to zero and it would appear that there is no relationship between variable
until demonstrated by the scatterplot

range truncation
an artificial restriction of the range of values of X or Y

outliers
extreme scores

can dramatically reduce the size of the correlation coefficient by disturbing the linear trend of the data

causation
is not implied by correlation

even though a strong relationship exists between two variables, we cannot say that one caused the other

there are other possible variables that were not measured that could have caused the effects

reasons correlations does not prove causation

since correlational studies do not create multiple levels of an independent variable and randomly assign subjects to conditions,
they cannot establish causal relationships

causal direction : in a correlation, we can not be sure which variable is the cause and which is the effect

bidirectional causation : both variables could cause the other variable

the third variable problem : there could be some other variable that is the cause that has not been measured

coefficient of determination (r^2)

once we calculate r, we can then calculate the coefficient of determination

estimates the amount of variability in scores on one variable that can be explained by the predictor variable

an estimate of the strength of the relationship between them

linear regression analysis

the technique used when two behaviors are strongly related to estimate a score on one of the measured behaviors from a score
on the other

multiple regression analysis

used when more than two related variables are correlated to predict behavior measured by one variable based on scores on two
or more other variables

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 15

 📖 predictor : independent variable; X
outcome : dependent variable; Y
simple correlation : a statistic used to determine the degree of relationship between two variables
multiple correlation : a statistic used to determine the degree of relationship between three or more variables
partial correlation : a statistic used to test predictions and allows the statistical influence of one measured variable to be
held constant while computing the correlation between the other two

quasi-experiments
quasi (Latin) : seeming like

superficially resemble experiments

lack the required manipulation of antecedent conditions and/or random assignment to conditions

may study the effects of preexisting antecedent conditions—life events (living through 9/11) or subject characteristics (having
autism) on behavior

should be used when antecedent condition can not or should not be manipulated

problems with quasi-experiments

can not establish cause with certainty

lacks internal validity—the ability to conclude with confidence that the antecedent condition caused the observed differences in
behavior

higher in external validity or generalizability than lab experiments

low in manipulation of antecedents but high in imposition of units

quasi experimental designs

lacks important elements of experiments, such as manipulation of antecedents or random assignment to treatment conditions

don’t look for relationships between variables like correlations

instead compares different groups of subjects looking for differences between them or looking for changes over time in the
same group of subjects

never know for sure what causes the effects seen and therefore are low in validity

ex post facto design

means “after the fact”

examines the effects of already existing subject variables (or subject characteristics like gender or personality type) but does
not manipulate them

like correlations, there is no cause

low in internal validity

nonequivalent groups design

compares the effects of treatment on preexisting groups of subjects

low in internal validity

longitudinal design cross-sectional approaches

the same group of subjects is measured at different points subjects at different developmental stages are compared at
of time to determine the effect of time on behavior the same point in time

important for studying human growth and development

pretest/post-test design solomon 4-group design

measurement of behavior before and after an event a variation on a pretest/post-test design which includes four
conditions :
no control condition
a group that received the pretest, treatment and post-
internal validity is reduced because of the following :
test

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 16

 no control group which receives a different level of the a non-equivalent control group that received only the
IV pretest and post-test

the results may be confounded by practice effects (also a group that received the treatment and a post-test
called pretest sensitization) due to less anxiety during
a group that only received the post-test
the posttest and learning caused by review of pretest
answers

practice effects (or pretest sensitization) : people do

better the second time they take an intelligence test
even when there is no special training in between

Experimental Psychology Midterm Reviewer 17