Unit 8

Compressibility and
Consolidation

Dr. Jitendra Singh Yadav

Assistant Professor-I
Dept of Civil Engineering
1

NIT Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra Haryana

• Introduction,

• components of total settlement,

• Consolidation process,

• Onedimensional consolidation test,

• Typical void ratio-pressure relationships for sands and clays,

• Normally consolidated and over consolidated clays,

• Casagrande's graphical method of estimating pre-consolidation pressure,

• Terzaghi's theory of one-dimensional primary consolidation,

• Determination of coefficients of consolidation,

• consolidation settlement,

• Construction period settlement,

• secondary consolidation
RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
The rate of settlement is expressed in terms of degree of consolidation or, consolidation ratio. The degree of
consolidation (U) is a number between 0 and 1 (100%) assigned to express the progress of consolidation at any
particular stage. During the consolidation process, U increases gradually from zero at the onset of consolidation to
1 at the end of consolidation.
The degree of consolidation can be expressed in terms of the settlement, pore water pressure dissipation, void ratio
change and the effective stress.
In terms of Settlement,

𝑠
𝑈= … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … . . (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑥)
𝑠𝑓
Where,
s = settlement at any time t, where 0<t<tf
tf = the total time of consolidation

U = degree of consolidation at any time t

sf = final settlement at the end of consolidation
3
At t = 0, s = 0 → U=0
At t = tf, s = sf → U=1

In terms of Void Ratio

𝑒0 − 𝑒
𝑈= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)
𝑒0 − 𝑒𝑓
Where,
𝑒0 = void ratio at t = 0
𝑒𝑓 = void ratio at t = tf
e = void ratio at time t
At t = 0, e = 0 → U=0
At t = tf, e = ef → U=1
In terms of Pore Water Pressure

𝑢0 − 𝑢
𝑈= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖)
𝑢𝑜
Where,
𝑢0 = pore water pressure at t = 0
u = pore water pressure at time t 65
At t = 0, u = 𝑢0 → U=0
At t = tf, u = 0 → U=1
In terms of Change in Effective Stress

𝜎𝑣′ − 𝜎0′
𝑈= ′ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖)
𝜎𝑣𝑓 − 𝜎0′
Where,
𝜎0′ = effective stress at t = 0
′
𝜎𝑣𝑓 = effective stress at t = tf
𝜎𝑣′ = effective stress at time t
At t = 0, 𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 ′ → U=0
𝑣 0
′
At t = tf, 𝜎𝑣′ = 𝜎𝑣𝑓 → U=1
According to Eqs. (xxxix) to (xxxxii), The settlement, void ratio and effective stress at any time during
consolidation could be determined if the degree of consolidation at that particular time is known. An attempt to
predict the time rate of consolidation has been given by Terzaghi though his one dimensional (1-D)
Consolidation Theory.
5
TERZAGHI’S THEORY
Terzaghi first developed the theory of consolidation in 1923. To derive the theory, the following assumptions
have been made:

1. The soil is homogeneous.

2. The soil is fully saturated.
3. The solid particles and water are incompressible.
4. The flow is one dimensional.
5. Darcy’s law is valid.
6. Coefficient of permeability and coefficient of volume change remain same.
7. The strains produced are small.
8. There is unique relationship between void ratio and effective stress independent of time.
In this theory, three quantities are related, there are,
1. The excess pore water pressure, u.
2. The depth, z, below the top of the clay layer.
3. The time, t, from the instant of the application of a total stress increment.
6
Relationship between e and 
 Terzaghi’s 1 -D consolidation theory

➢ Small-strain theory (i.e. Applied load increment produces only small strains in
the soil; therefore both the coefficient of compressibility av and k remain
essentially constant during the consolidation process.

o Constant av implies that there is no secondary compression; If secondary

compression occurs, then the relationship between e and  would not
be unique.

(Secondary compression is the change in void ratio that occurs at constant

effective stress)
When the clay is subjected to an increase in vertic al pressure, , the PWP at
any point A will increase by u.
▪ Consider a soil element with a volume of dx dy dz at A
▪ In c ase of 1D consolidation, flow of water into and out of soil element is in
1 D only. (i.e. in z- direction).
i.e. qx = qy = dqx = dqy = 0
By substituting and simplifying:

Substitution and rearranging gives:During consolidation, the rate of change of volume is equal
to the rate of change of the void volume. So,
---- (1)

By writing Vs = V/(1+e)
= V / (1+Vv /Vs)

---- (2)

Equating (1) and (2), we get:

The change in void ratio, e, is due to the increase of
effective stress; assuming that these are linearly related,
then:

where av is the coefficient of compressibility. Again, the

increase of effective stress is due to the decrease of
excess pore water pressure, u. Hence
Pressure-vs-void ratio relationship for a
typical pressure increment
Where:

Where:

Basic DE of Terzaghi’s 1D consolidation theory an

can be solved with proper boundary conditions.
SOLUTION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION IN CONSOLIDATION

Terzaghi’s equation is a partial differential equation. The solution could be obtained by setting the boundary

conditions of the soil undergoing consolidation. The following boundary conditions are adopted:

1. At the beginning of consolidation (t = 0), the increase in distribution of pore pressure is uniform throughout

the layer (u = uo) as shown in Fig.. Free draining condition is assumed at both surfaces of the layer (open

layer). The thickness of the layer = 2d, where, d is the longest drainage path which is equal to half of the

layer’s thickness when drainage occurs upward and downward.

𝒖𝒛 = 𝒖𝒐 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟎 ≤ 𝒛 ≤ 𝟐𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒕 = 𝟎 … … … … … … … … … . . (𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒊𝒗)

2. Since the upper and lower boundaries are free draining, at t>0, the excess pore pressure at the boundaries has

been dissipated completely.

𝒖𝒛 = 𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒛 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛 = 𝟐𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒕 > 𝟎 … … … … … … … … … . (𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒗)

13
Assuming the above boundary conditions, the excess pore pressure at depth z (measured from the upper free
draining surface) after time t is:

𝑛 =∞
1 2𝑑 𝑛𝜋𝑧 𝑛 2 𝜋 2 𝑐𝑣 𝑡
𝑢𝑧 = ∑ ∫ 𝑢0 sin 𝑑𝑧 𝑒𝑥𝑝 … … … . . (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑖)
𝑑 0 2𝑑 4𝑑2
𝑛 =1
Where,
d = length of longest drainage path
uo = initial pore water pressure, in general function of Z

For particular case in which uo is constant throughout the clay

layer:
Fig. : Boundary conditions for the solutions of 1D
𝒏=∞ consolidation equation of Terzaghi
𝟐𝒖 𝒏𝝅𝒛 𝒏𝟐𝝅𝟐𝒄𝒗𝒕
𝒖𝒛 = ∑ 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒑 … … … … … … … … … … (𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒗𝒊𝒊)
𝒏𝝅 𝟐𝒅 𝟒𝒅𝟐
𝒏=𝟏
14
When n is even 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜋 = 0, and when n is odd, 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜋 = 2. Only odd values of n are relevant
and it is convenient to make the substitutions:
𝜋
𝑛 = 2𝑚 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 = (2𝑚 + 1)
2
It is also convenient to substitute:
𝒄𝒗 ∗ 𝒕
𝑻𝒗 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝒅𝟐
Where, Tv is a dimensionless number called time factor.
Thus the above equation becomes:

𝑚 =∞
2𝑢0 𝑀𝑧
𝑒 −𝑀2𝑇𝑣
𝑈𝑧 = ∑ sin … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑥)
𝑀 𝑑
𝑚 =0
Where,
𝜋
𝑀= 2
2𝑚 + 1 : 𝑚 = 1,2,3,4, … … . .

15
The progress of consolidation can be shown by plotting a series of curves of u against “z” for different values of t.
Such curves are called isochrones and form will depend on the initial distribution of excess pore water and the
drainage conditions at the boundary of the clay layer.
A layer for upper and lower boundaries are free draining is described as open layer and a layer for which only one
boundary is free draining is a half closed layer.An example is shown in Fig. .
The degree of consolidation at any depth z and time t can be obtained by substituting the pore pressure at that
particular depth and time from Eq. (xxxxxxix) into Eq. (xxxxi).

𝑢0 − 𝑢
𝑈𝑧 =
𝑢0

𝑚 =∞ 𝑚=0
2 𝑀𝑧
𝑈𝑧 = 1 − ∑ sin 𝑒 −𝑀2𝑇𝑣 … … … … … … … … … (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)
𝑀 𝑑

Fig. : Variation oPfreepxarceedsBsy:pDro.ArrevinpdrKeumssaurJrhea,M(uU)J as a function of drainage length (z) and75(Tv)

 The average degree of consolidation for the whole layer (𝑈̅ ) can be calculated from Eq. (xxxxi) by
taking the average pore pressure over 2d:
2𝑑
̅ = 1 − ∫0 𝑢. 𝑑𝑧 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖)
𝑈
𝑢0
Hence,

𝑚=∞ 2
̅=1− ∑
𝑈 𝑒 −𝑀2𝑇𝑣
2
… … … … … (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖)
𝑀
𝑚=0

By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 76

Fig. : Variation of the average degree of consolidation and time
 The relationship of 𝑈̅ and Tv according to Eq. (xxxxxxxii) for the assumption of uniform distribution
of the initial excess pore pressure is shown in Curve (1) of the Fig.. Curves (2) and (3) are the
solutions for the different assumptions of initial boundary conditions.
Numerical values of 𝑈 ̅ and Tv of curve (1) are given in the following Table 3.
̅ and Tv
Table 3. Relationshipbetween𝑼

𝑈̅ 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Tv 0.08 0.031 0.071 0.126 0.197 0.287 0.403 0.567 0.848

̅ and Tv is:
Empirical relationship between 𝑈
𝝅
𝑼̅< 𝟎. 𝟔; 𝐓𝐯 = 𝑼𝟐̅ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒊𝒊𝒊)
𝟒
𝑼̅> 𝟎. 𝟔; 𝐓𝐯 = −𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟑 𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝟏 − 𝑼̅)−𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟓 … … … … … … … … . . (𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒊 𝒗)

If a graph is plotted between 𝑈̅and Tv using Taylor’s relationship, a curve of the

nature as shown in Fig. is obtained.

Fig. : Degree of consolidation versus time factor

18
Limitations of 1D consolidation
➢ In the derviation of 1D equation the permeability (Kz) and coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) are
assumed constant, but as consolidation progresses void spaces decrease and this results in decrease of
permeability and therefore permeability is not constant. The coefficient of volume compressibility also
changes with stress level. Therefore Cv isnotconstant.

➢ The flow is assumed to be 1D but in reality flow is three dimensional

➢ The application of external load is assumed to produce excess pore water pressure over the entire soil stratum but in
some cases the excess pore water pressure does not develop over the entire clay stratum.
1. A saturated soil has a compression index of 0.25. its void ratio at a stress of 10 kN/m2 is 2.02 and its
permeability is 3.4 x 10-7 mm/s. Compute:
i. Change in void ratio if the stress is increased to 19 kN/m2;
ii. Settlement in (i) if the soil stratum is 5 m thick; and
iii. Time required for 40% consolidation if drainage is one-way.
2. A clay sample of 20 mm height is consolidated in one dimensional test with two way drainage. The
time to reach 50% consolidation was 20 minutes from the beginning of the test. Estimate the amount
of time for the same soil in the field to reach same degree of consolidation if the soil layer is 6 m
thick and layer has two way drainage. What time will be required to achieve the same degree of
consolidation if the soil in the field has one way drainage?
3. 12. A 8 m thick clay layer with single drainage settles by 120 mm in 2 years. The coefficient of
consolidation for this clay was found to be 6 x 10-3 cm2/s. Calculate the likely ultimate consolidation
settlement and find out how long it will take to undergo 90% of this settlement.

20
 Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
➢The coefficient of Consolidation Cv is the only term in the consolidation equation that takes into
account soil properties which govern the rate of consolidation.

➢The coefficient of consolidation (Cv) signifies the

rate at which a saturated clay undergoes 1-
dimensional consolidation when subjected to an
increase in pressure.

➢A knowledge of Cv is essential for predicting the rate of primary

consolidation settlement.
 Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
➢ Several methods are available for obtaining Cv

➢These methods compare characteristic features of the theoretical time factor, T, and the
degree of consolidation, U, relationship with time-compression data obtained in
the laboratory.
➢The square root of time-fitting method (root t method) proposed by Taylor (1948) and the
logarithm of time- fitting method (log t method), also called Casagrande's method
(Casagrande and Fadum 1940), are the most widely used methods in practice and
are considered as standard methods.
Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
➢The root t method yields Cv values larger than those obtained
from Casagrande's log t method
a)Plot the dial readings for specimen deformation for a given load
increment against time on semi-log graph paper.
b) Plot two points, A and B, on the upper portion of the Consolidation curve, which
correspond to time t1 and t2, respectively. Note that t2 = 4t1
c)The difference of dial readings between A and Bis equal to x. Locate point R,
which is at a distance x above point A.
d)Draw the horizontal line RS. The dial reading corresponding to this line is d0,
which corresponds to 0% consolidation.
e)Project the straight- line portions of the primary consolidation and the secondary
consolidation to intersect at T . The dial reading corresponding to T is d100, i.e.,
100% primary consolidation.
f)Determine the point V on the consolidation curve that corresponds to a dial reading of (d0
+d 100) / 2 = d50 . The time corresponding to point V is t50, i.e., time for 50% consolidation.

g)Determine Cv from the equation T = Cvt/ H 2. The value of T for Uav = 50% is 0.197
H = Hdr / 2
d0 R S

d50 V

d100
For d50, t50 =10.2 min. T
Cv
= 0.197(2.06/2) 2 /(10.2 x 60) cm 2 / min
t50
➢ Since it has been found that the laboratory and the theoretical curves have better correspondence at the
central portion, the value of cv is computed by taking the time t and time factor T at 50 percent
consolidation.

➢ The equation to be used is

𝒄𝒗𝒕𝟓𝟎 𝑻𝟓𝟎
𝑻𝟓𝟎 = 𝒐𝒓, 𝒄𝒗 = 𝒅𝟐 … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑣)
𝒅𝟐 𝒕𝟓𝟎
Where, d = drainage path
From Table 3, we have U = 50%, T = 0.197. From the initial height Ho of specimen and compression dial
reading at 50% consolidation. d for double drainage is

𝒅𝒐 − ∆𝒅
𝒅= 𝟐 … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑖)
Where, ∆𝑑 = compression of sample up to 50% consolidation.
Now the equation for cv may be written as

𝒅𝟐
𝒄𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟕 … … … … … … . … … … … … … . (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖)
𝒕𝟓𝟎
25
 Taylor’s root time method

a) Plotthe dial reading and the corresponding square- root-of-time √t

b)Draw the tangent DQ to the early portion of the plot.
c)Draw a line DR such that OR = 1.15OQ.
d) The abscissa of the point E(i.e., the intersection of DR and the consolidationcurve will
give√ t90 (i.e., the square root of time for 90% consolidation).
e) The value of Tf or Uav = 90% is 0.848. So,

➢The theoretical curve U vs Tv is a straight line upto

60% consolidation and the abscissa of curve at 90%
consolidation
Determination of Cv
❖ Log time method makes use of early (primary
consolidation) and later time responses (secondary
compression) and in comparison the root time method only
utilizes early time response, which is expected to be a straight
line.
❖Root time method should give good results except when non-
linearity's arising from secondary compression cause substantial
deviations from the expected straight
line. Most pronounced for clayey soils with organic
content (i.e. Marine clay).
❖Hence Log time method most suited for clays and root time
method for silts.
13. During one of the loading stages on a clay subjected to one dimensional consolidation the following data were
tabulated:
Time for start of Thickness of Total change in
The value of coefficient of consolidation is required loading, t (min.) specimen, h (mm) thickness, ΔH
(mm)
making allowance for secondary consolidation effects
0 19.202 0
according to the method introduced by Taylor.
0.25 19.075 0.127
1.0 18.821 0.381
2.25 18.654 0.548
4.0 18.512 0.690
6.25 18.423 0.779
9.0 18.364 0.838
12.25 18.318 0.884
16.0 18.288 0.914
20.25 18.278 0.924
120 18.199 1.003
1440 18.123 1.079

28
SETTLEMENT CALCULATIONS
Two ways to calculate the consolidation settlement:
1. Coefficient of volume change method
2. Compression index method
By Coefficient of volume change method
In Fig., a layer of saturated clay of thickness H is shown. Suppose the increase in vertical stress at a layer of
thickness dz at depth z is ∆𝜎𝑣′ , due to the placement of building on the top of the clay layer. It is assumed that the
lateral strain in clay layer is zero.

29
After the completion of consolidation an equal increase in effective vertical stress ∆𝜎 ′ will
𝑣 take place corresponding to a stress

increase from 𝜎0′ to 𝜎1′ . As a result, the corresponding reduction in void ratio will be from e o to e1. In terms of void ratio, the
reduction in volume per unit volume can be written as:

∆𝑽 𝒆𝟎 − 𝒆𝟏
= … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … … . . (𝒙𝒊𝒗)
𝑽 𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎
Since the lateral strain is zero, reduction in volume per unit volume is equal to the reduction in thickness per unit thickness. This
will be equal to the settlement per unit depth. Therefore, by proportion, the settlement of the clay layer of thickness dz will be
given by:

𝒆𝟎 − 𝒆𝟏
𝒅𝒔𝒄 = ∗ 𝒅𝒛 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . 𝒙𝒗
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎

𝑒0 − 𝑒1 𝜎1′ − 𝜎0′
𝑑𝑠𝑐 = ∗ ∗ 𝑑𝑧
1 + 𝑒0 𝜎1′ − 𝜎0′

∆𝑒 ∆𝜎𝑣′
𝑑𝑠𝑐 = ∗ ∗ 𝑑𝑧
1 + 𝑒0 ∆𝜎𝑣′

∆𝑎𝑣
𝑑𝑠𝑐 = ∗ ∆𝜎𝑣′ ∗ 𝑑𝑧
1 + 𝑒0
𝒅𝒔𝒄 = 𝒎𝒗 ∗ ∆𝝈′𝒗 ∗ 𝒅𝒛 ……………………………………(𝒙𝒗𝒊)
48
Where, sc = consolidation settlement
The settlement of the layer of thickness H is given
by:
𝐻
𝑠𝑐 = ∫ 𝑚𝑣 ∗ ∆𝜎𝑣′ ∗ 𝑑𝑧 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖)
0

If 𝑚𝑣 and ∆𝜎𝑣′ are assumed constant with depth, then:

𝑠𝑐 = 𝑚𝑣 ∗ ∆𝜎𝑣′ ∗ 𝐻 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .
(𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Or,

𝑒0 − 𝑒1
𝑠𝑐 = ∗ 𝐻 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑥𝑖𝑥)
1 + 𝑒0

31
Alternative method,
Settlement is the result of reduction in void ratio. From the phase diagram as in Fig. It can be seen that:

Fig. : Relationship between the change in void ratio and the deformation of soil

𝑯𝒔 𝟏
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝒙𝒙)
𝑯𝒐 𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎

𝑯𝒐 − 𝑯𝒔
𝒆𝟎 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝒙𝒙𝒊)
𝑯𝒔

𝑯𝟏 − 𝑯𝒔
𝒆𝟏 = ……………………….……………..
(𝒙𝒙𝒊𝒊) 𝑯𝒔
32
From above Equation (xxi) and (xxii), we get,

𝑯𝒐 − 𝑯𝒔 𝑯𝟏 − 𝑯𝒔 𝑯𝒐 − 𝑯𝟏 ∆𝑯
∆𝒆 = 𝒆𝟎 − 𝒆𝟏 = − = = ……………….
(𝒙𝒙𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝑯𝒔 𝑯𝒔 𝑯𝒔 𝑯𝒔

∆𝑯
𝑯𝒔 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝒙𝒙𝒊𝒗)
∆𝒆

Substituting Hs from Equations (xxiv) into (xx), we get

∆𝑯 𝟏
=
∆𝒆. 𝑯 𝟏+𝒆
𝟎 𝟎

∆𝒆
∴ ∆𝑯 = ∗ 𝑯𝟎 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝒙𝒙𝒗)
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒐

33
Settlement analysis by 𝒂𝒗

For small change of ∆𝜎𝑣′ , The coefficient of compressibility could be

expressed as:

𝑒1 − 𝑒2 ∆𝑒
𝑎𝑣 = ′ ′ = ∆𝜎 ′ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .
𝜎
(𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑖) 2 − 𝜎1 𝑣

Substituting ∆𝑒 from eq. (xxv) into eq. (xxvi)

𝑎𝑣 ∗ ∆𝜎 ′ ∗ 𝐻 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖)
∴ ∆𝐻 = 𝑣 0
1 + 𝑒𝑜 Fig. : Relationship between e and 𝝈 ′ 𝒗

Eq. (xxvii) can also be written as:

∴ ∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑣 ∗ ∆𝜎 ′ ∗ 𝐻 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . .
(𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑣 0

34
By Compression index method
Normally Consolidated Clay
Compression Index (Cc),

∆𝑒
𝐶𝑐 = ……………………………………….
𝜎𝑜′ + ∆𝜎 𝑣′
log10 (𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑥)
𝜎𝑜′

𝜎𝑜′ + ∆𝜎 𝑣′
∴ ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑐 ∗ log10 ………………………………….
𝜎𝑜′
(𝑥𝑥𝑥)
We know,

∆𝑒
∆𝐻 = ∗ 𝐻𝑜 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖)
1 + 𝑒𝑜

𝐶𝑐 𝜎𝑜′ + ∆𝜎 𝑣′
∴ ∆𝐻 = ∗ 𝐻𝑜 ∗ log 10 ………………………….
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜′
(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖)
Where, 𝜎𝑜′ = effective stress before consolidation
∆𝜎𝑣′ = additional stress due to load 53
 By Compression Index Method
Over Consolidated Clay
The settlement calculation depends upon the excess foundation pressure ∆𝜎 ′ 𝑣 over and above the existing
overburden pressure 𝜎𝑜′ . Hence, it is necessary to examine the new stress level due to the loading as compared
to 𝝈 ′ :
𝒎𝒂𝒙

Settlement Computation,
1. The new stress level 𝜎 ′ + ∆𝜎 ′ does not exceed 𝜎 ′
𝑜 𝑣 𝑚𝑎𝑥 . In this case, the soil remains over consolidated after
loading as shown in Fig. . [if 𝜎 ′ + ∆𝜎 ′ ≤ 𝜎 ′ 𝑜𝑟, 𝑝 ].
𝑜 𝑣 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐

If Cr = re-compression index, we have

Fig. : Change in void ratio in an overconsolidated

clay due to loading

36
 ∆𝑒
𝐶𝑟 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝜎𝑜′ + ∆𝜎𝑣′
log10
𝜎𝑜′

𝜎𝑜′ + ∆𝜎𝑣′
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑟 log10 ………………………………………
𝜎𝑜′
(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑣)
By substituting for ∆𝑒 in Eq. (xxxiv), we have

∆𝑒
∆𝐻 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 = ∗ 𝐻𝑜
1 + 𝑒𝑜

𝐶𝑟 𝐻𝑜 𝜎𝑜′ + ∆𝜎𝑣′
∆𝐻 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 = ∗ log10 … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑣)
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜′

37
2. if 𝜎 + ∆𝜎
𝑜
′
𝑣
′ exceeds 𝜎𝑚′𝑎 𝑥𝑜𝑟, 𝑝 𝑐, the stress increases such that the over consolidated soil becomes normally
consolidated as shown in Fig. 23. [if 𝜎 ′ < 𝜎 ′ 𝑜𝑟, 𝑝 < 𝜎 ′ + ∆𝜎 ′ ].
𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐 𝑜 𝑣

We may write from Fig. 23b:

𝜎′
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜎𝑜′ + ∆𝜎𝑣′
∆𝒆 = ∆𝒆𝟏 + ∆𝒆𝟐 = 𝑪𝒓 log10 + 𝐶 𝑐log 10 … … … … … … (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑖)
𝜎𝑜′ 𝜎′
𝑚𝑎
Hence, combination of both slope lines are required to be considered. Now the final equation for ∆𝐻 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑡 may be
written as follows:

𝑪𝒓 𝑯𝒐 𝝈 ′𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑪𝒄 𝑯𝒐 𝝈𝒐′ + ∆𝝈𝒗′

∆𝑯 𝒐𝒓 𝑺𝒕 = ∗ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 + ∗ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 … … … … … … (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖)
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒐 𝝈𝒐′ 𝟏 + 𝒆𝒐 ′
𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙
The recompression index Cr is approximately lies between 1/5 to 1/10Cc (can be used as a check)
Nagraj and Murthy (1985) have proposed the following equation for Cr as
𝑤𝑙
𝐶𝑟 = 0.0463 𝐺𝑠 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖)
100
Where,
𝑤𝑙 = liquid limit, 𝐺𝑠 = specific gravity of solids.

38
Empirical methods to obtain C c (in the absence of
laboratory data)
 Secondary compression
➢ Clays (or certain type of soils/soil like materials)
continue to settle under sustained loading at the
of primary consolidation, and this is due to en the
d
continued re-adjustment of clay particles and this
phenomenon is called as ‘Secondary Consolidation’

➢ At point E, excess PWP is zero

and constant , no change in
V.. However, small changes in
V occur due to soil creep.

Typical time dependent

compression of soil →
➢ Secondary consolidation settlement is more important than primary consolidation of organic and
highly compressible inorganic soils.

➢ In over-consolidated inorganic clays, the secondary compression index C is very small and of less practical
significance.
Secondary Compression Index

ep = void ratio at the end of

primary consolidation

t1 = time required completion

of primary consolidation

t2 = time at which secondary

consolidation is being
determined.
Secondary compression
For sedimented (undisturbed) soils, Δ𝑒𝑒/(Δ log 𝑡𝑡) decreases with the increase of the final
consolidation pressure.

Remolding of clays creates a more dispersed fabric. This results in a decrease of the
coefficient of secondary consolidation at lower consolidation pressures as compared to
that for undisturbed samples. However, it increases with consolidation pressure to a
maximum value and then decreases finally merging with the values for normally
consolidated undisturbed samples.

Precompressed clays show a smaller value of coefficient of secondary consolidation.

The degree of reduction appears to be a function of the degree of precompression
Overconsolidated clays (OCR >2 to 3) = 0.001
Organic soils = 0.025 or more
Normally consolidated clays = 0.004−0.025
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) = 0.024 – 0.030
(even up to 0.163 - 0.350 are reported for MSW)
👉 Creep deformations are small; Normally neglected ; It is
required to be noticed that small time-dependent deformations that are not
due to exclusively to changes in  do occur in soils or soil like materials.
 Example problem An 8m depth of sand overlies a 6m layer of clay, below
which is an impermeable stratum; the water table is 2m below the surface
of the sand. Over a period of 1 year, a 3m depth of fill (unit weight 20 kN/
m 3 ) is to be dumped on the surface over an extensive area. The saturated
unit weight of the sand is 19 kN/ m3 and that of the clay is 20 kN/ m3;
above the water table the unit weight of the sand is 17 kN/ m 3.

For the clay, the relationship between void ratio and effective stress (units
kN/ m2) can be represented by the equation

and the coefficient of consolidation is 1.26m2 / year.

(a) Calculate the final settlement of the area due to consolidation of the clay and the settlement
after a period of 3 years from the start of dumping.

(b)If a very thin layer of sand, freely draining, existed 1.5m above the bottom of the clay layer, what would be the
values of the final and 3-year settlements?
Solution
Since the fill covers a wide area, the problem can be considered to be one-
dimensional. The consolidation settlement will be calculated in terms of
Cc, considering the clay layer as a whole, and therefore the initial and
final values of effective vertical stress at the centre of the clay layer are
required.
Solution
In the calculation of the degree of consolidation 3 years after the start of
dumping, the corrected value of time to allow for the 1-year dumping
period is:
Solution
b) The final settlement will still be 182mm (ignoring the thickness of the
drainage layer): only the rate of settlement will be affected. From the point
of view of drainage there is now an open layer of thickness 4.5m (d = 2.25 m)
above a half-closed layer of thickness 1.5m (d = 1.5 m)
 Example

The results of an oedometer test on a normally consolidated clay

are given below (two-way drainage):

The time for 50% consolidation for the load increment from 50 to 100kN /m 2 was
12 min, and the average thickness of the sample was 24 mm. Determine
the coefficient of permeability and the compression index.
Solution
1. The laboratory consolidation data for an undisturbed clay specimen are as follows:
Void ratios: e1 = 1.1 𝝈𝟏′ = 95 kN/m2
e2 = 0.9 𝝈𝟐′ = 475 kN/m2
What will be the void ratio for a pressure of 600 kN/m2?

1.1

Void ratio, e
0.9
e3

95 475 600
Logarithmic effective stress (𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟏𝟎 𝝈𝒗, )
52
2. During a consolidation test, a sample of fully saturated clay 3 cm thick (= ho) is consolidated under a pressure
increment of 200 kN/m2. When equilibrium is reached, the sample thickness is reduced to 2.60 cm. The pressure is
then removed and the sample is allowed to expand and absorb water. The final thickness is observed as 2.8 cm (hf)
and the final moisture content is determined as 24.9%. If the specific gravity of the soil solids is 2.70, find the void
ratio of the sample before and after consolidation.

53
3. A stratum of normally consolidated clay 7m thick is located at a depth 12 m below ground level. The natural moisture
content of the clay is 40.5 % and its liquid limit is 48%. The specific gravity of the solid particles is 2.76. The water
table is located at a depth 5m below ground surface. The soil is sand above the clay stratum. The submerged unit weight
of the sand is 11 kN/m3 and same weighs 18 kN/m3 above the water table. The average increase in pressure at the center
of the clay stratum is 120 kN/m2 due to the weight of a building that will be constructed on the sand above the clay
stratum. Estimate the expected settlement of the structure. [Use, Compression Index (Cc) = 0.009 (wL – 10)]

4. At a vertical stress of 200 kPa, the void ratio of a saturated soil sample tested in an oedometer is 1.52 and lies on the
normal consolidation line. An increment of vertical stress of 150 kPa compresses the sample to a void ratio of 1.43.
(a) Determine the compression index, Cc, of the soil.
(b) The sample was unloaded to a vertical stress of 200 kPa, and the void ratio increased to 1.45. Determine the
slope
of the recompression index, Cr.
(c) What is the overconsolidation ratio of the soil at stage (b)?
(d) If the soil were reloaded to a vertical stress of 500 kPa, what void ratio would be attained?

54
 5. A sand fill compacted to a bulk density of 18.84 kN/m3 is to be placed on a compressible saturated marsh deposit 3.5 m
thick. The height of the sand fill is to be 3 m. if the volume compressibility mv of the deposit is 7x10-4 m2/kN, estimate
the final settlement of the fill.
Pressure in kN/m2 Dial reading in
6. The following results were obtained from a consolidation test:
cm
Initial height of sample (Hi) = 2.5 cm 0 0.00
Height of solid particles (Hs) = 1.25 cm 13 0.00
Plot the pressure-void ratio curve and determine 27 0.004
(a) the compression index and (b) the preconsolidation pressure. 54 0.016
108 0.044
214 0.104
480 0.218
960 0.340
1500 0.420

55
7. A clay layer of 1m thick is found between 6 m and 7 m below the ground surface. The clay layer is
sandwiched between sand layers. The coefficient of volume change of the clay is 0.40 x 10-3 m2/kN. A 3 m
high sand embankment of circular plan area is placed on the ground surface. The unit weight of the sand is
20 kN/m3. Determine the settlement of the clay layer under the center of a circular area of radius r = 2 m
can be calculated according to the given formula below:

1 1.5
∆𝜎𝑣′ = 1− 𝑟 2
*q
1+ 𝑧

56
 Problem 1
• In Normally consolidated clay stratum of 3m thickness has two
permeable layers at its top and bottom. The liquid limit and initial
void ratio of the clay are 3.6% and 0.82% respectively while the
initial overburden pressure at the middle of the clay layer is
2kg/cm2. Due to construction of new building this pressure
increases by 1.5kg/cm2. Compute the Probable consolidation
settlement of the building.
(Ans. 9.37 cm)
 Problem 2
• A clay soil, tested in a consolidometer, showed a decrease in void
ratio from 1.20 to 1.10 when the pressure was increased from 0.25
to 0.50 kgf/cm². Calculate the coefficient of compressibility (av) and
the coefficient of volume compressibility (mv). If the coefficient of
consolidation (cv) determined in the test for the given stress
increment was 10 m²/year, calculate the coefficient of permeability
in cm/s.
• If the sample tested at the site was taken from a clay layer 3.0 m in
thickness, determine the consolidation settlement resulting from
the given stress increment.
 Problem 3
• Representative samples of a layer of silty clay, 5 m thick, were
tested in a consolidometer and the following results were obtained:
➢Initial void ratio e0=0.90
➢Preconsolidation stress ഥ =120kN/m2
𝝈
➢ Recompression index Cr=0.03
➢ Compression index Cc=0.27

• Estimate the consolidation settlement if the present average

overburden stress of the layer, 𝝈 ഥ o is 70 kN/m² and the increase in
average stress in the layer is 80 kN/m².
 Problem 4
• A normally consolidated clay layer settled by 20 mm when the
effective stress was increased from 25 to 50 kN/m². What will be its
settlement when the effective stress is increased from 50 to 100
kN/m²?
 Problem 5
• Figure represents the average soil profile
obtained from boreholes, at the site of a
proposed building whose foundation is to be
placed at a depth of 2.5 m. The ground water
table is at a depth of 3.5 m. It is estimated that
the additional stress on the clay layer due to
the weight of the building will be 150 kN/m² at
the top of the clay and 70 kN/m2 at the bottom
of the clay. Following results were obtained
from consolidation tests.

Unit weights: sand above water table 19.0 kN/m³; saturated sand - 21.0 kN/m³; clay-19.5 kN/m³.
Determine the settlement of the clay layer.
Thanks !!!