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BREEDING OILSEED
CROPS FOR
SUSTAINABLE
PRODUCTION
Page left intentionally blank
BREEDING OILSEED
CROPS FOR
SUSTAINABLE
PRODUCTION
Opportunities and Constraints

Edited by

Surinder Kumar Gupta

Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology Chatha, Jammu (J&K), India

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 Contents

List of Contributors ix Creation of Genetic Variability 35

Breeding Methods 37
Preface xiii Pedigree Method 38
Backcross Breeding 38
1. Strategies for Increasing the Production Development of Synthetics and Composites 38
of Oilseed on a Sustainable Basis Development of Hybrids 39
RAMESHWER DASS GUPTA, SURINDER KUMAR GUPTA Doubled-Haploid Breeding and In Vitro
Mutagenesis 39
Introduction 1 Genetic Transformation 41
Extending Irrigation Facilities 3 Development of Herbicide-Tolerant
Important Moisture Conservation Practices 3 Cultivars 41
Growing Heat and Drought-Resistant Mustard Quality Improvement 42
Varieties 6 Future Developments 43
Integrated Nutrient Management 6 Sustainability 43
Seed Inoculation with Rhizobium Culture 12 New Emerging Crops and Possible Research
Integrated Pest Management 14 Developments 44
Intercropping 16 References 45
References 17
4. Sunflower
2. Breeding Oil Crops for Sustainable
YALCIN KAYA
Production: Heavy Metal Tolerance
MUHAMMAD A. FAROOQ, BASHARAT ALI, Introduction 55
RAFAQAT A. GILL, FAISAL ISLAM, PENG CUI, Breeding Opportunities for Sustainable Production
WEIJUN ZHOU
of Sunflowers 55
Introduction 19 Sunflower Breeding for Desirable Plant
Why Do Plants Take Up Toxic Metals? 21 Architecture 62
Toxic Effects of Metals on Oilseed Crops 21 Sunflower Breeding Strategies for Constraints 67
Effect of Heavy Metal Stress on Oil Quality 23 Breeding for Resistance to Abiotic Stresses 74
Hyperaccumulation and Oilseed Crops 23 Sunflower Breeding for Herbicide Tolerance 78
Molecular Aspects of Metal Hyperaccumulation 24 Tolerance to Imidazolinones 79
Interacting Factors in Oilseed Crop Breeding Tolerance to Sulfonylureas 80
and Heavy Metal Tolerance 26 Sunflower Breeding for Sustainable
Conclusions and Future Perspectives 27 Production 81
References 27 References 82

3. Brassicas 5. Groundnut
SURINDER KUMAR GUPTA MOTHILAL ALAGIRISAMY

Introduction 33 Introduction 89
Breeding Objectives 34 Botany 91
Genetic Resources 35 Cytogenetics 97

v
vi CONTENTS

Germplasm Resources for Sustainable 8. Niger

Production 100 A.R.G. RANGANATHA, ANAND KUMAR PANDAY,
Breeding for Sustainable Production 101 RAJANI BISEN, SURABHI JAIN, SHIKHA SHARMA
Molecular Breeding 120
References 122 Introduction and Economic Importance 169
Productivity Scenario 170
6. Sesame Origin and Domestication 171
FAISAL ISLAM, RAFAQAT A. GILL, BASHARAT ALI, Taxonomy and Species Relationships 172
MUHAMMAD A. FAROOQ, LING XU, ULLAH NAJEEB, Anthesis and Pollination 174
WEIJUN ZHOU Plant Genetic Resources 175
Genetic Diversity 176
Introduction 135 Exploration and Collection 177
Sesame Production and Trends 136 Conservation 178
Major Challenges to Sustainable Sesame Crop Genetic Improvement 179
Production 137 Selfincompatibility 180
Breeding Efforts in Sesame Crop for Sustainable Breeding Methods 181
Production 139 Population Improvement 184
Steps Toward the Enhancement of Sustainable Procedures in Synthetic Development 184
Development 142 Quality Breeding 190
Recent Sustainable Developments Maintenance Breeding and Nucleus Seed
in Sesame 143 Production 192
References 144 Seed Production Systems 193
SWOT Analysis for Niger 196
7. Safflower Future Strategies 197
VRIJENDRA SINGH, NANDINI NIMBKAR References 198

Introduction 149 9. Coconut

Economic Importance 149
SURIYA A.C.N. PERERA
Plant as a Leafy Vegetable 150
Safflower Seed 150 Introduction 201
Safflower Oil 150 Genetics and Breeding of Coconuts 202
Safflower Flowers 151 Breeding Coconuts for Sustainable Production 206
Genetic Resources 152 References 213
Present Status of Research 152
Crop Improvement 153 10. Oil Palm
Seed Yield 153
NTSOMBOH-NTSEFONG GODSWILL, NGANDO-EBONGUE
Oil Content 154 G. FRANK, AJAMBANG-NCHU WALTER, MAHO-YALEN
Resistance to Diseases 155 J. EDSON, TABI-MBI KINGSLEY, VINCENT ARONDEL,
Foliar Diseases 155 BELL J. MARTIN, YOUMBI EMMANUEL
Fusarium Oxysporum and Root Diseases 155
Pest Resistance 156 Introduction 217
Development of Hybrids 156 Objectives and Developments in Sustainable Oil
Problems Causing Reduced Safflower Area, Palm Breeding 229
Production, and Productivity 157 Developments in Oil Palm Breeding 232
Opportunities to Overcome Breeding Techniques for Sustainable
the Bottlenecks Affecting Productivity Production 237
in Safflower 158 Breeding for Sustainable Production 244
Restructuring of the Safflower Ideotype 159 South East Asian Experience of Oil Palm Breeding
References 164 for Sustainability 248


 CONTENTS vii
Cameroon’s Experience of Oil Palm Breeding for 14. Forecasting Diseases and
Disease Tolerance 255 Insect Pests for a Value-Added
Smallholders and Sustainable Oil Palm
Production 256
Agroadvisory System
Conclusions and Future Challenges 257 AMRENDER KUMAR, CHIRANTAN CHATTOPADHYAY,
BIMAL KUMAR BHATTACHARYA, VINOD KUMAR,
References 258 AMRENDRA KUMAR MISHRA

11. Olives Why Study Epidemiology/Epizoology

AURORA DÍAZ and Forecasting of Crop Pests? 346
Where to Use Forecast Models? 346
Introduction 275 Regional Forecasting for Crop Protection
Challenges 276 Advisories 347
Constraints 287 Short-Range Weather Forecasting from
References 288 Agromet Station Observations Using
a Genetic Algorithm – A Case Study 348
12. Soybean Forecasting Podfly in Late Pigeonpea – A Case
ADITYA PRATAP, SURINDER KUMAR GUPTA, Study 349
JITENDRA KUMAR, SUHEL MEHANDI, Model for Qualitative Data – Logistic Model 349
VANKAT R. PANDEY Models for Quantitative Data 350
Qualitative Model Results 350
Introduction 293 Quantitative Model Results 351
Production and Productivity Trends 294 Why Use a Computer-Based Decision Support
History, Origin, and Evolution 294 System? 353
Crop Biology and Breeding Behavior 295 Why Use Remote Sensing in the
Ploidy Status 296 Forecasting of Crop Pests? 354
Genetic Improvement 297 Coping with Climate Change and
Biotechnology 300 Sustaining Accurate Forecasts 357
Oil Content and Protein Quality 302 References 357
Oil Extraction 306
Soybean Oil for Industrial Uses 307
References 308 15. Designer Oil Crops
MUKHLESUR RAHMAN,
MONIKA MICHALAK DE JIMÉNEZ
13. Omics – A New Approach
to Sustainable Production Introduction 361
SAJAD MAJEED ZARGAR, NANCY GUPTA, Biotechnology and Metabolic Engineering of
MUSLIMA NAZIR, RAKEEB AHMAD MIR, Designer Oil Crops 364
SURINDER KUMAR GUPTA,
GANESH KUMAR AGRAWAL, RANDEEP RAKWAL
Conclusions 371
References 372
Introduction 317
Genomic Approach 318 16. Genetic Improvement of Rapeseed
Transcriptomic Approach 323 Mustard through Induced Mutations
Proteomics Approach 325
VINOD CHOUDHARY,
Metabolomics Approach 329 SANJAY J. JAMBHULKAR
Ionomics Approach 331
Precise Phenomics – A Must for All Omics-Based Introduction 377
Approaches 331 Mutations for Morphological Traits 377
Conclusions 332 Early-Flowering Mutations 380
References 333 References 385


viii CONTENTS

17. Pollination Interventions Prebreeding of Oilseed Crops for Climate

UMA SHANKAR, DHARAM P. ABROL
Change 450
Breeding and Selection Strategies
Introduction 391 Under Changing Climates 455
Rapeseed Mustard and Canola (Brassica spp.) 393 Innovative Breeding Strategies
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.; Family to Combat Climate Change 460
Compositae) 402 Future of Oilseed Breeding for Climate Change 464
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.; Family References 465
Asteraceae) 407
Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.; Family 19. Possibilities of Sustainable
Pedaliaceae) 407
Oil Processing
Linseed/Flax (Linum usitatissimum L., Family
BERTRAND MATTHÄUS
Linaceae) 409
Pollination Management 412
Introduction 473
Number of Colonies Required for Pollination 413
Oil Processing 475
Pollination Recommendations 414
Removal of the Solvent 493
Conclusions and Future Strategies 414
Removal of Suspended Material 495
References 415
Refining Process 496
New Concepts of Seed Processing 514
18. Breeding Oilseed Crops Waste Treatment 516
for Climate Change Final Conclusions 517
ABDULLAH A. JARADAT References 518

Introduction 421 20. Integrated Pest Management

Future of Oilseed Production: Impact of Climate
DHARAM P. ABROL, UMA SHANKAR
Change 422
Global Genetic Resources and Genetic Introduction 523
Diversity of Oilseed Crops 424 Scenario of Oilseed Crops Throughout the
Breeding of Oilseed Crops for Abiotic Stress: World 523
Learning From Past Experience 425 The Scenario of Oilseed Crops in India 525
Can Carbon in Oilseed Crops Help Constraints in Oilseed Crop Production 526
Mitigate Climate Change? 426 Important Insect Pests of Oilseed Crops 527
Interaction Between Abiotic and Biotic Stresses: Conclusions and Future Strategies 545
Impact on Oilseed Crops 428 References 545
Designing Oilseed Crops for a Changing Climate 429
Breeding Objectives of Oilseed Crops
Under a Changing Climate 445 Subject Index 551


 List of Contributors
Dharam P. Abrol Faculty of Agriculture, Divi-
sion of Entomology, Sher-e-Kashmir University
of Agricultural Sciences & Technology Chatha,
Jammu, Shalimar, J&K, India
Ganesh Kumar Agrawal Research Laboratory
for Biotechnology and Biochemistry (RLABB),
Kathmandu, Nepal
Mothilal Alagirisamy All India Co-ordinated
Research Project on Groundnut, Division of
Plant Breeding and Genetics, Regional Research
Station, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Vridhachalam, India
Basharat Ali Institute of Crop Science and
Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm,
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Vincent Arondel Membrane Biogenesis Labo-
ratory, UMR5200 CNRS, University of Bordeaux,
France
Bimal Kumar Bhattacharya Crop Inventory
and Agro-ecosystem Division, Space Applica-
tions Centre, Indian Space Research Organization
(ISRO), Ahmedabad, India
Rajani Bisen Project Coordinating Unit, All
India Coordinated Research Project (Sesame and
Niger), Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), JNKVV Campus, Jabalpur, India
Chirantan Chattopadhyay National Centre
for Integrated Pest Management, Indian Coun-
cil of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi,
India
Vinod Choudhary Nuclear Agriculture & Bio-
technology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre, Mumbai, India
Peng Cui Institute of Crop Science and Zhejiang
Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Zhejiang
University, Hangzhou, China
ix
Monika Michalak de Jiménez Department of
Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University,
Fargo, ND, USA
Aurora Díaz Unidad de Hortofruticultura, In-
stituto Agroalimentario de Aragón (IA2) (CITA-
Universidad de Zaragoza), Av. Montañana, Zara-
goza, Spain
Maho-Yalen J. Edson Department of Biological
Sciences, Higher Teachers’ Training College, Uni-
versity of Yaounde 1, Yaounde, Cameroon
Youmbi Emmanuel Department of Plant Biology,
University of Yaounde 1, Yaounde; Tissue Culture
Laboratory, Centre Africain de Recherche sur Bana-
niers et Plantains (CARBAP), Njombé, Cameroun
Muhammad A. Farooq Institute of Crop Science
and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm,
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Ngando-Ebongue G. Frank Selection and
Genetic Improvement Section, Specialized Centre
for Oil Palm Research of La Dibamba, Institute of
Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD),
Douala, Cameroon
Rafaqat A. Gill Institute of Crop Science and
Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm,
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Ntsomboh-Ntsefong Godswill Selection and
Genetic Improvement Section, Specialized Centre
for Oil Palm Research of La Dibamba, Institute of
Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD),
Douala; Department of Plant Biology, University
of Yaounde 1, Yaounde, Cameroon
Nancy Gupta School of Biotechnology, Sher-e-
Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology of Jammu, Chatha, Jammu, J&K, India
Rameshwer Dass Gupta Sher-e-Kashmir Uni-
versity of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of
Jammu, Chatha, Jammu (J&K), India
x List of Contributors
Surinder Kumar Gupta Division of Plant
Breeding & Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture,
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sci-
ences & Technology Chatha, Jammu (J&K), India
Faisal Islam Institute of Crop Science and Zhe-
jiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Zheji-
ang University, Hangzhou, China
Surabhi Jain Project Coordinating Unit, All
India Coordinated Research Project (Sesame and
Niger), Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), JNKVV Campus, Jabalpur, India
Sanjay J. Jambhulkar Nuclear Agriculture &
Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre, Mumbai, India
Abdullah A. Jaradat USDA-ARS and Depart-
ment of Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University
of Minnesota, MN, USA
Yalcin Kaya Engineering Faculty, Department
of Genetic and Bioengineering, Trakya University,
Edirne, Turkey
Tabi-Mbi Kingsley Selection and Genetic Im-
provement Section, Specialized Centre for Oil
Palm Research of La Dibamba, Institute of Ag-
ricultural Research for Development (IRAD),
Douala; Department of Plant Biology, University
of Yaounde 1, Yaounde, Cameroon
Amrender Kumar Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), New Delhi, India
Jitendra Kumar Crop Improvement Division,
Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India
Vinod Kumar Directorate of Rapeseed-Mustard
Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), Sewar, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India
Bell J. Martin Department of Plant Biology, Uni-
versity of Yaounde 1, Yaounde, Cameroon
Bertrand Matthäus Max Rubner-Institut, Federal
Research Institute for Nutrition and Food, Depart-
ment for Quality and Safety of Cereals, Working
Group for Lipid Research, Detmold, Germany
Suhel Mehandi Crop Improvement Division,
Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India

Rakeeb Ahmad Mir School of Biosciences and
Biotechnology, BGSB University, Rajouri, India
Amrendra Kumar Mishra Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), New Delhi, India
Ullah Najeeb Department of Plant and Food
Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment,
University of Sydney, Eveleigh, NSW, Australia
Muslima Nazir Department of Botany, Faculty
of Science, Jamia Hamdard University, Jamia
Nagar, New Delhi, India
Nandini Nimbkar Department of Genetics and
Plant Breeding, Nimbkar Agricultural Research
Institute, Phaltan, Maharashtra, India
Anand Kumar Panday Project Coordinating
Unit, All India Coordinated Research Project
(Sesame and Niger), Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), JNKVV Campus, Jabalpur, India
Vankat R. Pandey Crop Improvement Division,
Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India
Aditya Pratap Crop Improvement Division,
Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India
Mukhlesur Rahman Department of Plant Sci-
ences, North Dakota State University, Fargo,
ND, USA
Randeep Rakwal Research Laboratory for Bio-
technology and Biochemistry (RLABB), Kath-
mandu, Nepal; Organization for Educational
Initiatives, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai,
Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
A.R.G. Ranganatha Project Coordinating Unit,
All India Coordinated Research Project (Sesame
and Niger), Indian Council of Agricultural Re-
search (ICAR), JNKVV Campus, Jabalpur, India
Uma Shankar Faculty of Agriculture, Division
of Entomology, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Ag-
ricultural Sciences & Technology Chatha, Jammu,
Shalimar, J&K, India
Shikha Sharma Project Coordinating Unit, All
India Coordinated Research Project (Sesame and
Niger), Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), JNKVV Campus, Jabalpur, India
 List of Contributors
Vrijendra Singh Department of Genetics and
Plant Breeding, Nimbkar Agricultural Research
Institute, Phaltan, Maharashtra, India
Suriya A.C.N. Perera Division of Genetics
and Plant Breeding, Coconut Research Institute,
Lunuwila, Sri Lanka
Ajambang-Nchu Walter Selection and Genetic
Improvement Section, Specialized Centre for Oil
Palm Research of La Dibamba, Institute of Agricul-
tural Research for Development (IRAD), Douala,
Cameroon; Plant Molecular Biology Laboratory,
Department of Plant Breeding and Biotechnology,
Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia

xi
Ling Xu Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of
Plant Secondary Metabolism and Regulation,
College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech
University, Hangzhou, China
Sajad Majeed Zargar Centre for Plant Bio-
technology, Division of Biotechnology, Sher-e-
Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences &
Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar, Srinagar, J&K,
India
Weijun Zhou Institute of Crop Science and
Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm,
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Page left intentionally blank
 Preface
Oilseed crops are grown under varied ag-
roclimatic situations ranging from tropical to
temperate regions of the world and are vital
commodity in trade and commerce. World
population continues to increase, thus creat-
ing an increasing demand of oil and its var-
ied products. Despite the fact that technolog-
ical advances made in all the major crops, the
need and opportunities to increase the pro-
duction and oil yield are as great as they have
ever been. It has been possible only due to
the increase in area under each crop as well
as high-yielding varieties. Current breeding
effort worldwide are focused on sustainable
production and higher oil yield per unit area
of land with a view to maximizing returns.
Besides oil yield, breeding populations with
many traits such as fatty acids, vitamins,
high carotene etc. are identified in various oil
crops for industrial/pharmaceutical purpos-
es. Technological advances have also been
made in each crop to create value addition to
make the production sustainable.
The book includes 20 chapters, which
have been well prepared by leading scien-
tists of the world with vast experience and
whose contributions are well known over the
world. Chapters 1 and 2 deal with new strat-
egies for oilseed production and breeding for
sustainable production: heavy metal toler-
ance while Chapters 3–12 deal with breeding
brassicas, sunflower, groundnut, sesame, ni-
ger, safflower, coconut, oilpalm, and olive for
sustainable production. Chapter 13 describes
a new approach – OMICS for sustainable
xiii
production followed by a chapter on forecast-
ing diseases and insect-pests for value added
agroadvisory system (Chapter 14). Designer
oilcrops (Chapter 15) is the most important
chapter, which describes various technologi-
cal advances till date to make production
sustainable. Chapters 16 and 17 describe ge-
netic improvement through mutation breed-
ing and pollination interventions, respec-
tively. Breeding for climate change followed
by oil technology is presented in Chapters 18
and 19 and integrated pest management in
Chapter 20. Above all, breeding oil crops for
climate change and designer oil crops have
added new dimensions in this book.
I am highly indebted to all my contribu-
tors especially Professor W.J. Zhou, Crop Sci-
ence Institute, Hangzhou, China, Abdullah
A. Jaradat, USDA-ARS, University of Min-
nesota, USA, Mukhlesur Rahman, North
Dakota State University, USA, and Bertrand
Matthäus, Max Rubner-Institute, Federal Re-
search Institute for Nutrition and Food, Det-
mold, Germany for their ready response. I am
indeed grateful to Nancy Maragioglio, Senior
Acquisitions Editor, Julia Haynes, Senior
Project Manager, S&T Books, Elsevier, Aca-
demic Press for making every effort to make
this book valuable for readers. Lastly, I owe
a lot to my wife Dr Neena Gupta and both
my kids, Kavya and Kanav for their patience
during the preparation of this manuscript.
Editor
Surinder Kumar Gupta
Page left intentionally blank
 C H A P T E R

1
Strategies for Increasing
the Production of Oilseed
on a Sustainable Basis
Rameshwer Dass Gupta*, Surinder Kumar Gupta**
*Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu, Chatha,
Jammu (J&K), India
**Division of Plant Breeding & Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Kashmir
University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology Chatha, Jammu (J&K), India

INTRODUCTION

Among the oilseed crops, soybean is the major contributor to the world’s oilseed economy
followed by rapeseed mustard, cotton, peanut, and sunflower. The most important tropical
oilseeds are the coconut, palm kernels, and groundnut. The major oilseed-producing areas
are in temperate zones. America and Europe together account for more than 60% of the world
production of oilseed whereas substantially small production (<5%) comes from tropical ar-
eas such as Africa, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Both oilseed and oil production have consis-
tently increased over the years to meet the ever increasing demand for vegetable oils. Among
the oilseeds, soybean is the chief oilseed crop. Brassica spp. is the second largest oilseed crop
after soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), surpassing peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), sunflower
(Helianthus annuus L.), and cottonseed (Gossypium hirsutum L.) over the last two decades
(FAO, 2010; Agricultural Outlook 2010–19). Palms are grown predominantly in the tropical
areas of the world as perennial trees and are an important source of vegetable oil. About two-
thirds of the total fat oil production is supplied by oilseeds, with palm oil having a maximum
share of 33%. Copra, cotton, palm, peanut, rapeseed, soybean, and sunflower are the oilseed
crops, which dominate the international markets for trade purposes.
India has agroecological conditions that favor growing nine oilseed crops (Hegde and
­Sudhakara Babu, 2000). These oilseed crops consist of seven edible oilseeds – groundnut,
rapeseed mustard, soybean, sunflower, sesame, safflower, and niger – and two nonedible

Breeding Oilseed Crops for Sustainable Production. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801309-0.00001-X

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1
2 1. Strategies for Increasing the Production of Oilseed on a Sustainable Basis

sources – castor and linseed. Apart from this, a wide range of other minor oilseeds and oil-
bearing tree species are grown in India.
India is, in fact, the largest producer of castor, sesame, safflower, and niger and the second
largest producer of groundnut and rapeseed mustard. Oilseed constitutes the second largest
agricultural commodity after cereals in the country, sharing 14% of gross cropped area and
accounting for about 5% of gross national product and about 10% of the value of all agri-
cultural products. Nearly 14 million people are involved in the production of oilseed and
another 1 million in its processing.
In spite of India’s premier position in terms of cropped area and production, its oilseed
productivity is one of the lowest. Moreover, the contribution of India to the world’s annual
oilseed production is less than 10%. Besides this, the per capita availability of oil is calculated
to be about 9.2 kg against the world average of 11 kg. A recommended per capita require-
ment of 14 kg has been specified by India’s Council of Medical Research. Furthermore, the
demand for edible oils both in quantity and quality is increasing due to an increase in popu-
lation, which was 1.21 billion in 2011 (Luna, 2011) and is presently more than 1.25 billion
(Gupta, 2014). Because the population is annually increasing at 1.8% and the oil consumption
rate is increasing at 6%, the per capita consumption of oils and fats has doubled during the
past 15 years. Annual demand has been growing at a rate of about 6% over the last 13 years
touching nearly 12.5 million tons during 1998–1999.
In light of the above, India witnessed an alarming edible oil scenario during the early
1980s due to low production and productivity, and heavy import of edible oil. Between 1981
and 1986, India imported edible oil worth Rs. 38,870,000,000. Owing to a heavy outflow of
foreign exchange for edible oils, next only to petroleum products, the government of India
set up the Technology Mission on Oilseeds during May 1986. Due to the concerted efforts of
this mission, a quantum jump in oilseed production, from 10.83 million tons to 25.21 million
tons (1998–1999), was achieved, with productivity increasing from 570 kg ha–1 to 932 kg ha–1
(Sudhakar et al., 2000).
During 2002 the consumption of vegetable oil for the population of 1027 million was 9 mil-
lion tons at an estimated per capita consumption of 8.74 kg, whereas its total consumption was
12.3 million tons at a per capita consumption of 10.7 kg during 2010 when the population was
1120 million. The demand for edible oil both in quantity and quality is increasing due to the
increase in population and improvement in the standard of living in addition to a growing in-
dustrial demand. The annual demand which was 125 million tons (Gupta, 2009) has now risen
to over 130 million tons, whereas production is barely 75 million tons. To meet this requirement
for edible oil consumption, oilseed output is required to be 42.24 million tons. An integrated
oilseed development program was initiated in different Indian states, with more than 3000 oil-
seed societies involving 11 million farmers and 25 million hectares of land, with the purpose of
increasing oilseed productivity (Gupta, 2009). However, despite these efforts, oilseed produc-
tivity still continues to be as low as 944 kg ha–1 compared with the world level of 1632 kg ha–1.
Presently, there is not much scope to expand the cultivable area used for oilseed. The con-
tinuous shortage of cooking oil would suggest that the Oilseeds Technology Mission, and the
growing of oil palms, has had little impact. These energy-rich crops suffer from a number of
constraints as they are grown in poor environments and are susceptible to pests and diseases.
Moreover, farmers prefer to grow high-yield varieties of cereals and thus earn more profit.
In light of the above, the improved technology developed to boost the output of the major
oilseed crops to meet the country’s needs for edible oil needs to be used by farmers both


14 1. Strategies for Increasing the Production of Oilseed on a Sustainable Basis

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

Integrated pest management (IPM) is a broad ecological approach to managing insect pest
problems rather than their complete eradication. The IPM approach, in fact, is the best mix
of all available methods and techniques that are used for total crop management in order to
keep the pest population below the economic threshold level. Greater emphasis is placed on
the use of resistant varieties of crops to pests (diseases, cultural control, fertilizer and soil
water management, and use of botanical pesticides).

Cultural Control
Cultural methods such as crop rotation, deep tillage, removal of weeds, and adjusting
­sowing/harvesting time should be followed to maximize prevention of pests and diseases.

Fertilizer and Soil Water Management

Soils rich in organic matter with balanced status of NPK and micronutrients can withstand
pest attacks. Appropriate soil moisture is also important for limiting pest attacks and main-
taining good plant growth.

Botanical Pesticides
Botanical pesticides that have been found less persistent in the environment and safe for
mammals/other nontarget organisms should preferably be used to control various insect
pests. Commercial products/formulations prepared from such trees as neem (Azadirachta
indica), drek (Melia azedarach), and bael (Aegle marmelos) should preferably be used over syn-
thetic or chemical pesticides to control insect pests.
Today, neem is the most promising source of botanical origin biopesticides. Neem owes
its toxic attributes to a number of bitter compounds called meliacins such as azadirachtin,
nimbin, and salanin, of which azadirachtin is the most potent. These products affect pests by
functioning as feeding and oviposition deterrents, insect regulators, and toxicants. Any pest
escaping one effect may get killed by the other effects. Neem has been found effective against
more than 200 pests including locusts, hairy caterpillars, pod borers, stem borers, beetles, jas-
sids, aphids, and mealy bugs (Chander and Munshi, 1995; Gupta and Singh, 2008).
The crushed roots of marigold (Tagetes erecta) provide good control of root knot nematodes
when applied to soil. The seed extract of grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) can be used to control
potato beetle. Garlic acts as a repellent for control of various insect pests. The root extract of
drumstick (Moringa oleifera) inhibits the growth of several bacteria.
Botanical pesticides such as rotenone, pyrethrum, ryania, and nicotine were in vogue be-
fore the advent of synthetic pesticides. However, these botanicals were thereafter relegated
to insignificant positions in pest control. Pyrethrum is extracted from the dried flowers of
chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum cinerariefolium). It has a rapid knockdown effect on flying
insects and is effective against household pests, etc.


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