EMS 112: ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 1

For all BSc. IEM 1 Students

TOPIC 3: Vector Calculus

Mobile: 0679595630/0742987389
Email: llydia@mzumbe.ac.tz
 Useful Definitions
• Definition: Scalar quantity is a quantity which
has magnitude only. Examples of Scalar
quantities are mass, distance, temperature and
speed.

• Definition: Vector quantity is a quantity which

has both magnitude and direction. Examples of
vector quantities are displacement, velocity,
acceleration and force.
 Useful Definitions

• Definition(The vector differential operator): The vector

differential operator 𝛻, ( read as “del” or “nabla”) in three
dimensions is defined as

   
   i  j  k .
 x ~ y ~ z ~ 

• This vector operator may be applied to (differentiable) scalar

functions and vector functions
3
Gradient
 Gradient of Scalar Functions

• If  x,y,z is a scalar function of three variables

and  is differentiable, the gradient of  is
defined as
  
grad     i j k.
x ~ y ~ z ~

* is a scalar function
*  is a vector function
5
 Gradient of Scalar Functions
Example:
If   x 2 yz 3  xy 2 z 2 , determine grad  at P  (1,3,2).

Solution
Given   x 2 yz 3  xy 2 z 2 , hence

 2 xyz 3  y 2 z 2
x

 x 2 z 3  2 xyz 2
y

 3 x 2 yz 2  2 xy 2 z
z
6
 Example continued

Therefore,
  
  i j k
x ~ y ~ z ~
 (2 xyz 3  y 2 z 2 ) i  ( x 2 z 3  2 xyz 2 ) j
~ ~

 (3 x 2 yz 2  2 xy 2 z ) k .
~

At P  (1,3,2), we have
  (2(1)(3)(2) 3  (3) 2 (2) 2 ) i  ((1) 2 (2) 3  2(1)(3)(2) 2 ) j
~ ~

 (3(1) 2 (3)(2) 2  2(1)(3) 2 (2)) k .

~

 84 i  32 j  72 k . 7
~ ~ ~
 Curl of a vector field
• Definition: The curl is a vector giving the magnitude
and axis of rotation about each point.

• The curl of a vector field m e a s u r e s

mi c r o s c o p i c ( i n f i n it e s i ma l ) r o t a t io n
o f a t h r e e - d ime n s io n al v e c t o r f i e l d
 Curl of a Vector Field

In Cartesian Coordinates:

If A  a x i  a y j  a z k , the curl of A is defined by

~ ~ ~ ~ ~

curl A    A
~ ~

   
  i  j  k   (a x i  a y j  a z k )
 x ~ y ~ z ~  ~ ~ ~

i j k
~ ~ ~

  
 curl A    A  .
~ ~ x y z
ax ay az
 Curl of a Vector Field
Example

If A  ( y 4  x 2 z 2 ) i  ( x 2  y 2 ) j  x 2 yz k ,
~ ~ ~ ~

determine curl A at (1,3,2).

~
 Example continued
Solution
i j k
~ ~ ~

  
curl A    A 
~ ~ x y z
y4  x2 z 2 x2  y2  x 2 yz

   2 

 y (  x 2
yz )  ( x 2
 y )
 i
 z  ~

   
 (  x 2 yz )  ( y4  x2 z 2 )  j
 x z ~
   2 2 
 (x  y ) 
2 2
( y  x z )
4
 k~
  x  y 
  x 2 z i  ( 2 xyz  2 x 2 z ) j  ( 2 x  4 y 3 ) k .
~ ~ ~
 Example continued
At (1,3,-2),
curl A  (1) 2 (2) i  (2(1)(3)(2)  2(1) 2 (2)) j
~ ~ ~

 (2(1)  4(3) 3 ) k
~

 2 i  8 j  106 k .
~ ~ ~

Exercise
If A  ( xy 3  y 2 z 2 ) i  ( x 2  z 2 ) j  x 2 yz 2 k ,
~ ~ ~ ~

determine curl A at point (1,2,3).

~
 LINE INTEGRAL

In this section, we will learn about: Various aspects of

line integrals in planes, space, and vector fields.
 Line Integrals
• In this section we define an integral that is similar to a single
integral except that instead of integrating over an interval
[a, b], we integrate over a curve C.

• Such integrals are called line integrals, although “curve

integrals” would be better terminology.

• They were invented in the early 19th century to solve

problems involving fluid flow, forces, electricity, and
magnetism.
 Line Integrals in Planes

• We consider a plane curve C given by the parametric

equations
x = x(t) y = y(t) atb
• OR, equivalently, by the vector equation r(t) = x(t) i + y(t) j,
and we assume that C is a smooth curve. [This means that r
is continuous and r(t)  0.]
 Line Integrals in Planes
• If we divide the parameter interval
[a, b] into n subintervals [ti – 1, ti] of
equal width and we let xi = x(ti), and
yi = y(ti), then the corresponding
points Pi(xi, yi) divide C into n
subarcs with lengths s1,
s2, . . . , sn. (See Figure 1.)
Figure 1
 Line Integrals in Planes
• We choose any point in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ sub arc. (This
corresponds to a point in [ti – 1, ti].)

• Now if f is any function of two variables whose domain includes

the curve C, we evaluate f at the point multiply by the
length si of the sub arc, and form the sum

• which is similar to a Riemann sum.

 Line Integrals in Planes
• Then we take the limit of these sums and make the
following definition by analogy with a single integral.
 Line Integrals in planes
• The length of the curve C for functions of x and y
is defined as

𝑏 2 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑠 = + 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Line Integrals in Planes

• A similar type of argument can be used to show that

if f is a continuous function, then the limit in
Definition 2 always exists and the following formula
can be used to evaluate the line integral:
 Line Integrals in Planes

• If s(t) is the length of C between r(a) and r(t), then

• Use the parametric equations to express x and y

in terms of t and write ds as
 Line Integrals in Planes
• In the special case where C is the line segment that
joins (a, 0) to (b, 0), using x as the parameter, we
can write the parametric equations of C as follows:
x = x,
y = 0,
a  x  b.
 Line Integrals in Planes
• Formula 3 then becomes

• and so the line integral reduces to an ordinary single

integral in this case.
• Just as for an ordinary single integral, we can interpret
the line integral of a positive function as an area.
 Line Integrals in planes
• Example 1: Evaluate C (2 + x2y) ds, where C is the upper half of the unit
circle x2 + y2 = 1.

• Solution:
• In order to use Formula 3, we first need parametric equations to
represent C.

• Recall that the unit circle can be parametrized by means of the

equations

x = cos t y = sin t
 Example 1 continued

• and the upper half of the

circle is described by the
parameter interval
0  t  . (See Figure 3.)

Figure 3
 Example 1 continued
• Therefore Formula 3 gives
Example 1 continued
 Line Integrals
• Suppose now that C is a piecewise-smooth curve; that
is, C is a union of a finite number of smooth curves
C1, C2, …., Cn, where, as illustrated in
Figure 4, the initial point of Ci + 1 is
the terminal point of Ci.

Figure 4
A piecewise-smooth curve
 Line Integrals

• Then we define the integral of f along C as the sum of the

integrals of f along each of the smooth pieces of C:
 Line Integrals
• Two other line integrals are obtained by replacing si by either
xi = xi – xi –1 or yi = yi – yi – 1 in Definition 2.

• They are called the line integrals of f along C with respect to x

and y:
 Line Integrals
• When we want to distinguish the original line
integral C f (x, y) ds from those in Equations 5
and 6, we call it the line integral with respect to
arc length.
 Line Integrals
• The following formulas say that line integrals with respect to
x and y can also be evaluated by expressing everything in
terms of t : x = x(t), y = y(t), dx = x (t) dt, dy = y (t) dt.
 Line Integrals
• In particular, we often need to parametrize a line segment, so
it’s useful to remember that a vector representation of the line
segment that starts at r0 and ends at r1 is given by
Line Integrals in Space
 Line Integrals in Space
• We now suppose that C is a smooth space curve given
by the parametric equations

x = x(t) y = y(t) z = z(t) atb

• or by a vector equation r(t) = x(t) i + y(t) j + z(t) k.

 Line Integrals in Space
• If f is a function of three variables that is continuous on
some region containing C, then we define the line
integral of f along C (with respect to arc length) in a
manner similar to that for plane curves:
 Line Integrals in Space
• We evaluate it using a formula similar to Formula 3:

• Observe that the integrals in both Formulas 3 and 9 can

be written in the more compact vector notation
 Line Integrals in Space
• For the special case f (x, y, z) = 1, we get

• where L is the length of the curve C.

 Line Integrals in Space
• Line integrals along C with respect to x, y, and z
can also be defined. For example,
 Line Integrals in Space
• Therefore, as with line integrals in the plane, we
evaluate integrals of the form

by expressing everything (x, y, z, dx, dy, dz) in terms of

the parameter t.
 Line Integrals in Space
• Example 2: Evaluate C y sin z ds, where C is the circular helix
given by the equations x = cos t, y = sin t, z = t, 0  t  2.
(See Figure 9.)

Figure 9
 Example 2 continued
• Formula 9 gives
Line Integrals of Vector Fields
 Line Integrals of Vector Fields
• Therefore we make the following definition for the line
integral of any continuous vector field.

• Definition: Let F be a continuous vector field defined on a

smooth curve C given by a vector function r(t), a≤ 𝑡
≤ 𝑏. Then the line integral of F along C is

b
C
F. dr = a
F r t . r ′ t dt = C
F. T ds
 Line Integrals of Vector Fields
• Where F(r(t)) is just an abbreviation for F(x(t), y(t),
z(t)), so we evaluate F(r(t)) simply by putting x = x(t), y
= y(t), and z = z(t) in the expression for F(x, y, z).

• Notice also that we can formally write dr = r(t) dt.

 Line Integrals of Vector Fields
• Definition: (Work done). The total work W done by the force
field F(r) acting on a particle which is following a given path,
is defined by the relation,

W= 𝑐
𝐹 𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟
 Line Integrals of Vector Fields
• Example: Find the work done by the force field F(x, y)
= x2 i – xy j
in moving a particle along the quarter-circle
r(t) = cos t i + sin t j, 0  t  /2.

• Solution:
Since x = cos t and y = sin t, we have
F(r(t)) = cos2t i – cos t sin t j, and
r(t) = –sin t i + cos t j
 Example continued
• Therefore the work done is
DIVERGENCE OF VECTOR FIELD
 Divergence of a vector field

vector field f (x, y, z )

P
an internal point P
V

V is the volume enclosed by the surface S

 Divergence of a Vector Field
In Cartesian coordinates, we have
If 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑓𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑓𝑧 𝑘 , the divergence of𝐴 is
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
defined as
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑓 = ∇. 𝑓
~ ~

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘 . (𝑓𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑓𝑦 𝑗
𝜕𝑥 ~ 𝜕𝑦 ~ 𝜕𝑧 ~ ~ ~
+ 𝑓𝑧 𝑘)
~
𝜕𝑓𝑥 𝜕𝑓𝑦 𝜕𝑓𝑧
⇒ 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑓 = ∇. 𝑓 = + + .
 Divergence of a vector field

Let ∅ (x, y, z) be a twice differentiable scalar

function. Then, its gradient exists,

  
v = grad     i j k.
x ~ y ~ z ~

• and we can differentiate once more, the first

component with respect to x, the second with
respect to y, the third with respect to z, and then
form the divergence.
 Divergence of a vector field

• Divergence of the gradient is the Laplacian ,

Hence we have the basic result that the

𝑑 2 𝑓𝑥 𝑑 2 𝑓𝑦 𝑑 2 𝑓𝑧
div v = div (grad ∅) = + + = ∇2 ∅
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦2 𝑑𝑧 2

Hence, div (grad ∅) = ∇2 ∅

 Divergence of a vector field

If we view f (x, y, z) as the velocity of a fluid flow div

f represents the rate of fluid flow from the point
P(x,y,z).
.fo div f > 0, P is a source of fluid;
.fo div f < 0, P is a sink.
.i div f = 0, then no fluid issues from P.
 Divergence of a vector field
Application:
• Consider a point charge q,
• The total flux of the electric
field E due to q is

Total flux ∅= 𝑆
𝐸. 𝑑𝑆
 Vector Field : Example
If 𝐹 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑖 − 𝑥𝑦𝑧𝑗 + 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑘,
~ ~ ~ ~
determine 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐴 at point (1,2,3).
~
Answer
𝜕𝑓𝑥 𝜕𝑓𝑦 𝜕𝑓𝑧
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐴 = ∇. 𝐹 = + +
~ ~ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
⥂⥂= 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧.
At point (1,2,3),
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹 = 2(1)(2) − (1)(3) + 2(2)(3)
~
= 13.
DIVERGENCE THEOREM
 DIVERGENCE THEOREM
• Let
-E be a simple solid region and let S be the boundary
surface of E, given with positive (outward) orientation.
-F be a vector field whose component functions have
continuous partial derivatives on an open region that
contains E.
• Then

 F  dS   div FdV

S E
 DIVERGENCE THEOREM
• Thus, the Divergence Theorem states that:

Under the given conditions, the flux of F

‘

across the boundary surface of E is equal

to the triple integral of the divergence of F
over.’
 GAUSS’S THEOREM

• The Divergence Theorem is sometimes called Gauss’s

Theorem after the great German mathematician Karl
Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855).
• He discovered this theorem during his investigation of
electrostatics
 DIVERGENCE THEOREM
• Example 1: Find the flux of the vector field
F(x, y, z) = z i + y j + x k over the unit sphere
x2 + y2 + z2 = 1
• Solution:
First, we compute the divergence of F:

  
div F   z    y    x   1
x y z
 Example 1 continued
• The unit sphere S is the boundary of the unit ball B given
by: x2 + y2 + z2 ≤ 1

• So, the Divergence Theorem gives the flux as:

 F  dS   div F dV   1dV

S B B

4
 V  B    1 
4 3
3
3
 Example 2 continued
• It would be extremely difficult to evaluate the given
surface integral directly.

-We would have to evaluate four surface integrals

corresponding to the four pieces of S.
-Also, the divergence of F is much less complicated
than F itself:
 Example 2 continued


div F   xy  
x
 2 xz 2
y
 
y  e   sin xy 
z
 y  2 y  3y

So, we use the Divergence Theorem to transform the

given surface integral into a triple integral.
 Example 2 continued

• The easiest way to evaluate the triple integral

is to express E as a type 3 region:

E
 x, y, z  1  x  1, 0  z  1  x , 0  y  2  z
2
 Example 2 continued
• Then, we have:
 F  dS
S

  div F dV
E

  3 y dV
E
1 1 x 2 2 z
 3   y dy dz dx
1 0 0
Example 2 continued

2  z
2
1 1 x 2
 3  dz dx
1 0 2
1 x 2
3 1  2  z 
3

    dx
2 1  3 
0

  12   x 2  1  8 dx
1 3

1  
    x 6  3 x 4  3 x 2  7  dx  184
1

0 35
GREEN’S THEOREM
 Green’s Theorem
In this section, we will learn about Green’s Theorem
for various regions and its application in evaluating a
line integral
 Green’s Theorem
• Green’s Theorem gives the relationship between a line
integral around a simple closed curve C and a double integral
over the plane region D bounded by C.

• We assume that D
consists of all points
inside C as well as
all points on C.
 Green’s Theorem
• In stating Green’s Theorem, we use the convention:
The positive orientation of a simple closed curve C refers to a
single counterclockwise traversal of C.
 Green’s Theorem
• Thus, if C is given by the vector function r(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, then
the region D is always on the left as the point r(t) traverses C.
 Green’s Theorem
• Let C be a positively oriented, piecewise-smooth,
simple closed curve in the plane and let D be the
region bounded by C.
• If P and Q have continuous partial derivatives
on an open region that contains D, then

 Q P 
C P dx  Q dy  D  x  y  dA
 Green’s Theorem
• The notation

𝐶
𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦

is sometimes used to indicate that the line integral is calculated

using the positive orientation of the closed curve C.
 Green’s Theorem
• Another notation for the positively oriented boundary curve
of D is ∂D.

• So, the equation in Green’s Theorem can

be written as:

 Q P 
D  x  y  dA  D P dx  Q dy
 Green’s Theorem
• In the one-dimensional case, the domain is an
interval [a, b] whose boundary consists of just
two points, a and b.
 Green’s Theorem
• Example: Evaluate
 x dx  xy dy
4
C

where C is the triangular curve

consisting of the line segments
from (0, 0) to (1, 0)
from (1, 0) to (0, 1)
from (0, 1) to (0, 0)
 Green’s Theorem
• The given line integral could be evaluated as usual by the
methods discussed above.

• However, that would involve setting up three separate

integrals along the three sides of the triangle.

• So, let’s use Green’s Theorem instead.

 Green’s Theorem
• Notice that the region D enclosed by C is simple and C has
positive orientation.
 Green’s Theorem
• If we let P(x, y) = x4 and Q(x, y) = xy, then

 Q P 
 x dx  xy dy    
4
 dA
C
D 
x y 
1 1 x
  
0 0
( y  0) dy dx
1
 [ 12 y 2 ] yy 1 x
 0 dx
0
1
 1
2  0
(1  x ) 2 dx
1
 1
6 (1  x ) 
0 
3 1
6
 Green’s Theorem
• In Example above, we found that the double
integral was easier to evaluate than the line
integral.
 Stokes’ Theorem
In this section, we will learn about the Stokes’
Theorem and using it to evaluate integrals
 Stokes’ Theorem
• Let:
S be an oriented piecewise-smooth surface
bounded by a simple, closed, piecewise-smooth
boundary curve C.
F be a vector field whose components have
continuous partial derivatives everywhere on an
open region in R3 that contains S.
 Stokes’ Theorem
Then,

C
F. dr= 𝑆
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹. 𝑑𝑆,

with ds=𝑛ds and 𝑛 being the unit normal vector to the surface
oriented using the right-hand rule (i.e., with the fingers along
the curve and the thumb giving the positive
orientation/direction of the normal, see figure in the next
slide)
 Stokes’ Theorem
• Figure:
 Stokes’ Theorem
• Thus Stokes’ Theorem states that

The line integral around the boundary curve of S

of the tangential component of F is equal to the
surface integral of the normal component of the
curl of F.
 Relationship between Green’s Theorem and
Stokes’ Theorem
• Stokes’ Theorem can be regarded as a higher
dimensional version of Green’s Theorem.

• Green’s Theorem relates a double integral over a

plane region D to a line integral around its plane
boundary curve.
• Stokes’ Theorem relates a surface integral over
a surface S to a line integral around the boundary
curve of S (a space curve).
 Stokes’ Theorem

• Example: Use Stokes’ Theorem to evaluate C

F. dr, where
F = (𝑧 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑥) and C is the triangle with vertices (1,0,0),
(0,1,0), and (0,0,1) See figure below
 Stokes’ Theorem
• Solution:
By Stokes’ law, C
F. dr= 𝑆
∇ × 𝐹. 𝑑𝑆

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ × 𝐹= 𝜕𝑦
=(0,2z-1,0)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
2 2 𝑥
𝑧 𝑦
 Stokes’ Theorem

• The surface S is the plane x+y+z=1 and so

z=g(x,y)=1-x-y

Hence, r(x , y)=(x , y , 1-x-y) and

f(r)= (∇ × 𝐹)(r(x,y))=(0,2(1-x-y)-1,0)

=(0,1-2x-2y,0)
 Stokes’ Theorem
• The region R is shown on the figure given, but if we
integrate w.r.t x and w.r.t y, then the region R is
described by 0≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 , 0≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1 − 𝑥 and

dr= 𝑟𝑥 × 𝑟𝑦 ds, where

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑟𝑥 × 𝑟𝑦 = 1 0 −1 =(1,1,1)
0 1 −1
 Stokes’ Theorem

1 1−𝑥
• C
F. dr = 0 0
(∇ × 𝐹)(r(x,y)). 𝑟𝑥 × 𝑟𝑦 ds

1 1−𝑥
= 0 0
(0,1−2x−2y,0).(1,1,1)dydx

1 1−𝑥
= 0 0
(1−2x−2y)dydx

1
= -
6
THE END OF THE TOPIC