Study of Performance Parameters of Solution Processed

Photodetectors

Enrollment no. – 9920102034, 9920102041, 9920102051

Name of Student – Ritik Gera, Ruchin Rai, Shikhar Srivastava
Name of Supervisor - Mr. Varun Goel

November, 2023
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of
Technology In Electronics and Communication Engineering

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

JAYPEE INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, NOIDA

i
 CERTIFICATE
It is certified that the work contained in the project report titled Study of Performance Parameters of
Solution Processed Photodetectors by Ritik Gera, Ruchin Rai and Shikhar Srivastava has been
carried out under my supervision and this work has not been submitted elsewhere for a degree of B.
Tech, in Electronics and Communication Engineering of Jaypee Institute of Information
Technology, Noida has been carried out under my supervision. This work has not been submitted
partially or wholly to any other University or Institute for the award of this or any other degree or
diploma.

Mr. Varun Goel

Assistant Professor

JIIT NOIDA

ii
 DECLARATION

We declare that this written submission represents our ideas in our own words and where others' ideas

or words have been included, we have adequately cited and referenced the original sources. We also

declare that we have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not

misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source in our submission.

We understand that any violation of the above will be cause for disciplinary action by the Institute and

can also evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not been properly cited or from whom

proper permission has not been taken when needed.

Name: Ritik Gera

Enrolment: 9920102034

Name: Ruchin Rai

Enrolment: 9920102041

Name: Shikhar Srivastava

Enrolment: 9920102051

iii
 Abstract
Quantum dots (QDs) particle which are nanometres in size, showing optical and electronic properties
they differ from larger particles because of quantum mechanics.

6 glass substrate of measurement 1.5cm X 1.5cm were cut, heated at 250, 350 and 450*C and coating of
2 Molar ZnO Quantum dots deposited on the Substarte with help of spin coater. ZnO Quantum dots
were prepared using solution process technique. ZnO Quantum Dots are low cost. Aluminum and Copper
electrodes were deposited on the substrate with the help of Thermal Evaporation Technique, 6 devices
were formed with channel length of 100 um. Further, Electrical Characterization is done using Keysight
Measurement Unit. For measurement, UV light, Red LED light and White LED light is considered. For
measurement of Dark Current, the devices were covered with the black sheet.

Quantum dot (QD) photodetectors have the advantages of low cost, tunable spectral response, ability to
generate multiple excitons, and high detection efficiency. However, QD photodetectors faceproblems s
uch aschemical properties, poor stability, and difficult to integrate components, so theperformance of th
ese photodetectors is far from conventional siliconbased photodetectors commonly used in industry. T
his review provides an overview of the selection of materials and design tools, specifically the measure
ment methods of photodetectors, strategies for improving QD process efficiency, comparing shipping
methods, and construction efficienc In addition, visible, nearinfrared and shortwave infrared quantum d
ot photodetectors are investigated for a deeper understandingof the quantum size effects of various qu
antum dots.

Finally, the practical application and current research of quantum dot photodetectors are summarized,
potential improvements are proposed to encourage more businesses to develop quantum dot photodetec
tors.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter No. Topics Page No.

Certificate from the Supervisor ii

Declaration iii

Abstract iv

List of figures vi

Chapter-1 Introduction 1

Chapter-2 Literature Survey 11

Chapter-3 Experimental Details 17

Chapter-4 Result and Discussion 29

Chapter-5 Conclusion and Future Scope 31

Chapter-6 References 32

v
 List of Figures

Fig. No. Content Page No.

1.1 Photodetector 2

1.2 Working of Photodetector 3

2.1 Synthesis at room-temperature and structural characterizations of 14

CsBr/KBr assisted CsPbBr3 QDs. a) A flowchart of the synthesis process
of CsPbBr3 QDs with CsBr/KBr treatment.

2.2 Plot of Wavelength to the Infrared Response 15

3.1 Ultrasonic Cleaner 18

3.2 Spin Coater Containing Substrate and ZnO QDs 19

3.3 Hot Plate Containing Substrate 20

3.4 Electro Deposition Machine 21

3.5 Block Diagram of Machine 22

3.6 Measuring Al ZnO PDs, I-V characterstics 23

3.7 Measuring Dark Current 24

3.8 Measuring White Light Current of Al ZnO QD PDs 24

3.9 Measuring Red Light Current of Al ZnO QD PDs 25

3.10 Measuring UV Light Current of Al ZnO QD PDs 25

3.11 Keysight Measure Unit 26

3.12 I-V analyzer 26

vi
3.13 Block diagram of the Procedure 27

3.14 Schematic Diagram of the Photodetector 27

3.15 Al Fabricated ZnO QD Photodetector 28

3.16 Cu Fabricated ZnO QD Photodetector 28

4.1 Al-based MSM devices annealed at different temperature 29

4.2 Al-based MSM devices coated with different thicknesses of ZnO QDs 30

vii
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Photodetectors

Photodetectors, integral to modern electronics, serve the fundamental purpose of converting light
into electrical signals. Their significance spans a myriad of applications, from imaging technologies
in digital cameras and medical devices to pivotal roles in communication systems, sensing
applications, and scientific instruments like spectrophotometers and telescopes. The evolution of
photodetection technologies has traversed distinct phases, from early vacuum tubes to the
semiconductor-based photodiodes and phototransistors that dominate today's landscape.
Optoelectronic devices, such as LEDs and laser diodes, further propelled advancements in optical
communication.

Recent breakthroughs have ushered in a paradigm shift towards solution-processed photodetectors.

Leveraging techniques like thin-film deposition from liquid solutions, these devices offer advantages
in cost-effectiveness, scalability, and compatibility with flexible substrates. The significance of
solution processing in modern electronics is underscored by its role in simplifying fabrication
processes and facilitating the production of electronic devices on a larger scale.

Looking towards the future, solution-processed photodetectors hold promise in reshaping electronic
devices. Their integration into quantum technologies and the pursuit of eco-friendly practices
underscore the dynamic nature of the field. As industries strive for sustainability, the emphasis on
solution processing in electronics manufacturing reflects a broader commitment to reducing
environmental impact. Continued research and innovation are imperative to unlock the full potential
of solution-processed photodetectors, ensuring they play a transformative role in the future of
electronic technologies. Photodiodes, the most common type of photodetector, utilize a
semiconductor material, often silicon, to absorb photons and generate a photocurrent. They find
widespread use in applications ranging from simple light detection to more complex tasks like solar
energy harvesting.

Examining the types of photodetectors reveals a diverse landscape, including photodiodes, which
convert light into current, phototransistors with amplified sensitivity, and photomultiplier tubes
renowned for extremely high sensitivity. Emerging technologies like organic and quantum-dot
photodetectors introduce unique properties, contributing to the expanding landscape of light
detection.

1
As the technological landscape evolves, the integration of photodetectors with nanotechnology
emerges as a pivotal trend. Nanostructured materials, such as quantum dots and nanowires, enhance
sensitivity and efficiency, opening new avenues for miniaturized devices. The flexibility of solution-
processed photodetectors extends their applications to wearable electronics and smart textiles, where
rigid counterparts fall short.

Fig 1.1 Photodetector (source: https://en.wkipedia.org/wiki/Photodetector)

1.1 Working of Photodetectors

Light photons which exist in photodiodes have an impact on how electron-hole pairs are formed.
Electron-hole pairs arise close to the depletion area of the diode if the energy (hv) of the lost photon
is higher than the energy difference of the semiconductor material. The electrical parts must be
separated from one another before they can be assembled back together because of the connection's
electric field. Due to the diode's current flow, the electrons are compelled to migrate to the n side,
while the holes are compelled to move to the p side. Because there are more electrons on the n-side
and holes on the p-side, there is an increase in electromotive force. The current increases with
increasing power output. The strength of the incident light has a direct impact on how much
electromotive force is generated. A reverse bias voltage makes it simple to see this effect, where the
photocurrent shifts according to the light intensity. As they generate a direct current based on the
2
intensity of the received light, photodiodes can be used as photodetectors to detect light. A photon
that strikes the diode with enough energy excites an electron, producing a free electron and a hole.
The working field in the depletion zone of the junction removes the carrier from the junction if
absorption takes place there. Therefore, the holes move to the anode, the electrons to the cathode,
and photocurrent is produced.

Fig 1.2 Working of Photodetector (source: https://www.e1procus.com/photodiode-working-principle-applications/)

1.2 Types of Photodetectors

1. Photodiodes:
Operation: Photodiodes are semiconductor devices that operate based on the photoelectric effect. When
photons strike the semiconductor material, electron-hole pairs are generated, creating a current flow.
Characteristics: Fast response times, high sensitivity, and a linear response to incident light.
2. Phototransistors:
Operation: Phototransistors build upon the principles of photodiodes but include a transistor
amplification stage. They amplify the current generated by incident light.
Characteristics: Higher sensitivity compared to photodiodes, making them suitable for low-light
conditions.
3. Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs):

3
Operation: PMTs use a series of dynodes to multiply the initial number of electrons generated by
incident photons, resulting in a significantly amplified signal.
Characteristics: Extremely high sensitivity, fast response times, and wide spectral range.
4. Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs):
Operation: APDs operate in reverse bias, and when a photon triggers an avalanche multiplication of
charge carriers, leading to an amplified signal.
Characteristics: Higher sensitivity than conventional photodiodes, especially in low- light conditions.
5. Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) and CMOS Sensors:
Operation: CCDs and CMOS sensors are imaging detectors that convert incident light into electrical
charge. The charge is then read out to form an image.
Characteristics: Commonly used in digital imaging devices, they offer high spatial resolution and can
capture detailed images.
6. Thermal Photodetectors (Bolometers):
Operation: Bolometers detect incident radiation by measuring the temperature change caused by
absorbed photons.
Characteristics: Suited for infrared (IR) detection, thermal imaging, and some types of spectroscopies.
7. Quantum Dot Photodetectors:
Operation: Quantum dots are semiconductor nanoparticles that exhibit quantum properties. Quantum
dot photodetectors leverage these properties for precise control over electronic and optical
characteristics.
Characteristics: Offer tunable bandgaps and quantum confinement effects, enabling unique optical
properties.
8. Organic Photodetectors:
Operation: Organic photodetectors use carbon-based (organic) materials. They offer flexibility and
tunability in electronic properties.
Characteristics: Suitable for flexible electronics, with the ability to conform to various shapes and
surfaces.
9. Single-Photon Detectors:
Operation: Single-photon detectors are designed to detect individual photons, making them crucial for
quantum optics and quantum communication.
Characteristics: High quantum efficiency and low noise for precise detection of single photons.
10. Perovskite Photodetectors:
Operation: Perovskite photodetectors use materials with a perovskite crystal structure, offering
excellent light-absorption properties.
4
Characteristics: High carrier mobility and tunable bandgap, making them promising for optoelectronic
applications.

1.3 Introduction to solution processing in photodetectors

Solution processing has emerged as a pivotal paradigm in the fabrication of photodetectors, presenting
a departure from traditional methods and opening new avenues for cost-effective, scalable, and versatile
device manufacturing. This transformative approach leverages liquid solutions containing dissolved
semiconductor materials, offering a streamlined alternative to complex and expensive fabrication
techniques. The intrinsic properties of these solutions, often composed of organic or perovskite
compounds, facilitate the deposition of thin films on substrates, enabling the creation of photodetectors
with diverse applications and unique advantages.
The process of solution processing begins with the dissolution of semiconductor materials in a liquid
solvent, resulting in a homogeneous solution. The choice of materials depends on the specific
characteristics desired in the photodetector, with organic and perovskite compounds being prominent
candidates. The subsequent deposition of this solution onto a substrate is achieved through various
techniques such as spin coating, inkjet printing, or dip coating. The controlled application of these
methods ensures the formation of uniform thin films, a critical aspect for the optimal performance of
photodetectors.
One of the defining features of solution processing is its scalability. Unlike traditional methods that
often involve complex and resource-intensive processes, solution processing allows for the facile
upscaling of production. The versatility of this technique is underscored by its compatibility with a
range of substrates, including flexible materials. This flexibility aligns with the evolving demands of
modern electronics, where the integration of flexible and wearable devices has become increasingly
prevalent.
The significance of solution processing extends beyond mere fabrication convenience. At its core, this
approach addresses key challenges faced by traditional photodetector manufacturing methods. The cost-
effectiveness of solution processing stems from the reduced complexity of production steps and the
potential for utilizing inexpensive materials. This economic advantage positions solution-processed
photodetectors as viable candidates for widespread adoption, especially in applications where cost
considerations are critical.
However, the journey towards realizing the full potential of solution-processed photodetectors is not
without hurdles. Material compatibility is a paramount concern, as the dissolution and deposition
process can introduce variations that impact the performance of the device. Researchers are actively
engaged in exploring novel materials and refining formulations to enhance the stability and
reproducibility of solution-processed photodetectors. Striking a balance between achieving optimal
5
device performance and minimizing environmental impact remains an ongoing challenge, prompting
investigations into eco-friendly solvents and sustainable practices.
The integration of solution-processed photodetectors into the realm of flexible and wearable electronics
marks a significant stride towards the future. The ability of these devices to conform to irregular shapes
and withstand mechanical strain positions them as key components in the development of next-
generation electronics. The applications extend to wearable health monitors, smart textiles, and
electronic skin, where traditional rigid counterparts fall short.
As the field of solution-processed photodetectors matures, the potential for innovation expands. The
promise of cost-effectiveness, scalability, and compatibility with flexible substrates positions this
approach at the forefront of technological advancements. The challenge now lies in further refining the
processes, addressing material compatibility issues, and ensuring the reliability of these devices in
diverse environments. The journey from liquid solutions to functional photodetectors embodies a
dynamic shift in the landscape of electronics manufacturing, emphasizing the adaptability and
sustainability required for the technologies of tomorrow. Continued research, interdisciplinary
collaboration, and a commitment to overcoming challenges will unlock the full potential of solution-
processed photodetectors, shaping a future where these devices play an integral role in the evolution of
modern electronics. The evolution of solution-processed photodetectors brings forth a myriad of
opportunities and challenges as researchers endeavor to refine this transformative approach. One of the
fundamental strengths lies in the adaptability of solution- processed photodetectors to various materials
and substrates. This adaptability is particularly crucial in the context of flexible electronics, where the
demand for pliability and conformability to irregular surfaces is paramount.

1.4 Solution processed photodetectors: Advantages and challenges

Solution processing in the domain of photodetectors marks a transformative departure from traditional
fabrication methods, offering a spectrum of advantages and simultaneously presenting unique
challenges. This approach, characterized by the deposition of semiconductor materials from liquid
solutions onto substrates, introduces a simplified and cost-effective alternative to traditional
manufacturing methods. As we explore the nuanced landscape of solution-processed photodetectors,
this discourse will delve into the manifold advantages they offer, ranging from scalability and versatility
to economic feasibility. Simultaneously, we will scrutinize the formidable challenges that must be
navigated, including material compatibility, reproducibility, and environmental impact, to fully unlock
the potential of this transformative approach. The scalability of this approach stands out, providing a
streamlined pathway for the mass production of photodetectors, essential for meeting the demands of
modern electronics. Their versatility and compatibility with diverse substrates, including flexible
materials, unlock opportunities for integration into wearable devices and flexible electronics. The cost-

6
effectiveness of solution processing, stemming from simplified fabrication steps and the utilization of
inexpensive materials, positions these photodetectors as economically viable alternatives.
One of the foremost advantages of solution-processed photodetectors lies in their inherent scalability.
Traditional manufacturing methods, often intricate and resource-intensive, encounter challenges when
transitioning from laboratory-scale prototypes to mass production. Solution processing, characterized
by its simplified and streamlined procedures, offers a pathway for the efficient upscaling of production.
This scalability aligns seamlessly with the demands of modern electronics, where the rapid and cost-
effective manufacturing of devices is pivotal for meeting market needs and facilitating technological
proliferation.
Solution processing unveils unparalleled versatility concerning material compatibility and substrate
diversity. The liquid nature of the solutions allows for the deposition of semiconductor materials on
various substrates, including flexible materials. This adaptability opens new vistas for the integration
of photodetectors into an extensive array of applications. From flexible electronics to wearable devices,
where conformability to irregular shapes is essential, solution-processed photodetectors showcase the
versatility necessary for the dynamic landscape of contemporary electronics.

The economic feasibility of solution processing is a compelling driving force behind its adoption in the
realm of photodetector fabrication. Traditional methods, with their complex and resource-intensive
steps, contribute to higher production costs. In contrast, solution processing reduces the number of
fabrications steps, utilizes less expensive materials, and minimizes the need for specialized equipment.
This intrinsic cost-effectiveness makes solution-processed photodetectors not only technically
advantageous but also commercially competitive for large-scale manufacturing.
A pivotal advantage of solution- processed photodetectors lies in their compatibility with flexible
substrates, positioning them as indispensable components in the development of flexible and wearable
electronics. These devices exhibit the capability to conform to various shapes and surfaces, facilitating
applications in smart textiles, electronic skin, and wearable health monitors. The flexibility of solution-
processed photodetectors responds aptly to the growing demand for electronics that seamlessly integrate
into our daily lives, fostering innovation in design and functionality.
Solution processing simplifies the overall manufacturing process of photodetectors, rendering it more
accessible and adaptable. The technique involves the dissolution of semiconductor materials in a liquid
solvent, forming a homogeneous solution. This solution is then deposited onto a substrate, creating thin
films through methods like spin coating, inkjet printing, or dip coating. The subsequent solvent
evaporation leaves behind a uniform layer of the semiconductor material. The simplicity of these
processes, in contrast to the intricate steps involved in traditional methods, enhances the overall
efficiency of solution- processed photodetector fabrication. Another notable advantage of solution-

7
processed photodetectors lies in the potential for reduced energy consumption during manufacturing.
Traditional methods often involve high-temperature processes and energy-intensive steps, contributing
to the environmental footprint of device fabrication. In contrast, solution processing generally requires
lower processing temperatures, offering the prospect of minimizing energy consumption. This aligns
with broader sustainability goals in the electronics industry and positions solution- processed
photodetectors as contributors to environmentally conscious manufacturing practices.
Solution processing accommodates a diverse range of semiconductor materials, allowing for the
incorporation of organic compounds, perovskites, and other innovative materials. This flexibility in
material selection enables researchers and manufacturers to tailor the properties of photodetectors to
specific application requirements.

1.5 Applications of solution processed photodetectors

1. Flexible Electronics:
Solution-processed photodetectors are pivotal in the realm of flexible electronics, where their
compatibility with flexible substrates allows seamless integration into bendable and stretchable devices.
These photodetectors play a crucial role in applications like flexible displays, rollable screens, and
conformable sensors. Their ability to conform to irregular shapes positions them at the forefront of the
development of next-generation electronic devices. The solution processing technique enables the
deposition of thin, uniform films on flexible substrates, facilitating the creation of electronic
components that can be bent, folded, or stretched without compromising performance.
2. Wearable Technology:
In the domain of wearable technology, solution-processed photodetectors find applications in devices
such as smartwatches, fitness trackers, and health monitors. Their flexibility and adaptability make them
ideal for integration into wearable electronics, providing the capability to monitor ambient light levels,
detect gestures, or measure vital signs. The conformability of these photodetectors to the human body
enhances user comfort and enables the development of unobtrusive, yet highly functional, wearable
devices.
3. Smart Textiles:
Solution-processed photodetectors contribute to the emerging field of smart textiles, where fabrics are
embedded with electronic functionalities. These photodetectors can be integrated into clothing for
applications like responsive lighting, gesture recognition, or even health monitoring. The lightweight
and flexible nature of solution-processed devices make them suitable for incorporation into fabrics,
opening new possibilities for interactive and intelligent textiles.
4. Internet of Things (IoT) Devices:

8
With the growing prevalence of IoT devices, solution-processed photodetectors play a crucial role in
creating smart and interconnected systems. These devices can be integrated into various IoT
applications such as smart home sensors, industrial monitoring systems, and environmental sensing
devices. The cost-effectiveness and scalability of solution processing align with the demands of large-
scale deployment in diverse IoT scenarios.
5. Imaging Sensors:
Solution-processed photodetectors find applications in imaging sensors for cameras, surveillance
systems, and industrial imaging. The ability to deposit uniform thin films over large areas makes them
suitable for image sensing applications. These photodetectors contribute to the development of high-
performance imaging devices, offering advantages in cost-effective production and potential
improvements in sensor sensitivity and resolution.
6. Quantum Technologies:
In the realm of quantum technologies, solution-processed photodetectors are gaining attention for
applications in quantum communication and quantum computing. The scalability and cost-effectiveness
of solution processing align with the demands of cutting-edge quantum research. These devices play a
crucial role in quantum key distribution systems, enabling secure communication, and contribute to the
development of quantum computers by providing efficient light detection in quantum information
processing.
7. Environmental Monitoring:
Solution-processed photodetectors are employed in environmental monitoring applications, where their
sensitivity to light levels is harnessed for measuring ambient conditions. From solar radiation
monitoring to assessing light pollution in urban areas, these devices contribute to understanding and
mitigating environmental impacts. The cost-effective nature of solution processing facilitates the
deployment of arrays of photodetectors for widespread environmental sensing.
8. Gesture Recognition Systems:
Solution-processed photodetectors are integral components in gesture recognition systems, enabling
touchless interaction with electronic devices. Their sensitivity to changes in light levels allows them to
capture and interpret hand gestures, making them suitable for applications in consumer electronics,
interactive displays, and automotive interfaces. The flexibility of these photodetectors also enhances
their integration into various form factors.
9. Biomedical Sensing:
Solution-processed photodetectors find applications in biomedical sensing, where their ability to detect
light levels is utilized for various diagnostic and monitoring purposes. These devices can be integrated
into medical instruments for tasks such as pulse oximetry, where the measurement of light absorption

9
by blood provides insights into oxygen saturation levels. The compatibility with flexible substrates
enhances their potential for wearable health monitoring devices.
10. Solar Energy Harvesting:
Solution-processed photodetectors play a role in solar energy harvesting applications. While distinct
from traditional solar cells, these devices can be employed to sense and optimize ambient light
conditions for solar panels. By monitoring sunlight levels, they contribute to the efficient operation of
solar energy systems, adjusting parameters for optimal energy conversion. The cost-effectiveness of
solution processing aligns with the goal of enhancing the efficiency of solar energy utilization

10
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 “Recent advances in solution-processed photodetectors based on

inorganic and hybrid photo-active materials” [1]:
Key feature: The paper discusses the development of new solution-processable semiconductor
materials with improved optoelectronic properties. This is an important advance, as it could lead to
the development of solution-processed photodetectors with even better performance.

Advantage: The paper provides a good overview of the different solution processing methods that
can be used to fabricate photodetector films. This information is valuable for researchers who are
interested in developing new solution-processed photodetector devices.

Disadvantage: The paper does not discuss the specific applications of solution-processed
photodetectors in detail. This would be helpful for readers who are interested in learning more about
the potential commercialization of these devices.

2.2 “Solution-processed ultrasensitive polymer photodetectors with

high external quantum efficiency and detectivity” [2]:

Key feature: The paper demonstrates a record-high EQE of over 80% for a solution-processed
polymer photodetector at room temperature. This is a significant achievement, as it shows that
solution-processed polymer photodetectors can be competitive with inorganic photodetectors in
terms of sensitivity.

Advantage: The paper highlights the importance of solvent vapor annealing and postproduction
thermal annealing in achieving high performance. This information is valuable for researchers
who are interested in developing solution-processed photodetectors with even better performance.

Disadvantage: The paper does not provide a detailed discussion of the device stability under
different environmental conditions. This is an important consideration for real-world applications.

2.3 “Performance comparison of solution-processed photodetectors

based on different semiconductor materials” [3]

11
Key feature: The paper compares the performance of solution-processed photodetectors based on
different semiconductor materials in a single table. This is a very helpful feature, as it allows
researchers to quickly compare the performance of different materials and device architectures.

Advantage: The paper highlights the advantages and disadvantages of each material and device
architecture. This information is valuable for researchers who are interested in developing new
solution-processed photodetector devices.

Disadvantage: The paper does not discuss the specific applications of each material and device
architecture in detail. This would be helpful for readers who are interested in learning more about the
potential commercialization of these devices.

2.4 “Role of Solvent Vapor Annealing in Improving the Performance of

Solution-Processed Polymer Photodetectors” [4]:

Key feature: The paper demonstrates a significant improvement in EQE, D*, and τ after SVA. This
is a significant achievement, as it shows that SVA can be used to significantly improve the
performance of solution-processed polymer photodetectors.

Advantage: The paper explains the SVA-induced performance improvement in terms of enhanced
crystallinity, reduced grain boundaries, and improved charge transport. This understanding is
important for researchers who are interested in developing SVA-processed polymer photodetectors
with even better performance.

Disadvantage: The paper does not provide a detailed discussion of the device stability under different
environmental conditions. This is an important consideration for real-world applications.

2.5 “Applications of Solution-Processed Photodetectors in Wearable

Devices, Environmental Monitoring, and Medical Diagnostics” [5]:

Key feature: The paper discusses the potential use of solution-processed photodetectors in wearable
devices to monitor physiological signals, such as heart rate, blood oxygen saturation, and skin
temperature. This is a promising application, as solution-processed photodetectors can be fabricated
into flexible and lightweight devices that can be easily integrated into wearable devices.

Advantage: The paper highlights the advantages of using solution-processed photodetectors in

environmental monitoring applications, such as detecting air pollutants and monitoring water quality.

12
Solution-processed photodetectors are scalable and low-cost to fabricate, making them ideal for large-
scale environmental monitoring applications.

Disadvantage: The paper does not provide a quantitative comparison of the performance of solution-
processed photodetectors to other types of photodetectors for each application. This would be helpful
for researchers who are interested in selecting the best type of photodetector for a particular
application.

2.6 “Solution-Processed Quantum Dot Photodetectors” [6]

Solutions for optoelectronic materials like colloid quantum dot, including flexible substrates, can
lower manufacturing costs and enable large-scale on-site production. High pixel count and tiny pixel
count are also wonderful qualities in photo media; the greatest sensitivity, including gain, is stated
here; and access to additional spectrum settings and higher capabilities beyond silicon.

Controlling data definition at the nanoscale allows devices that cannot operate with plant-based
materials to function. The physical qualities and performance of colloidal nanocrystalline materials
are dictated by the nanocrystalline surface area and size, as opposed to bulk semiconductors. Wet
chemistry can easily tune these two aspects to cut the material: absorption and emission spectra can
be generated by choosing the nanocrystal size; mobility can be determined by the length of the
capping ligand and the nanocrystal size, shape, and arrangement; carrier doping can be switched
between n-type and p-type by surface modification; carrier lifetimes determined by surface traps can
be tuned by selective passivation of the surface traps in n

2.7 “Quantum dots-in-a-well infrared photodetectors” [7]

A new InAs/InGaAs quantum dot (DWELL) infrared photodetector was reviewed in the well. The
active areas of these devices include InAs quantum dots (QDs) implanted in InGaAs quantum wells,
a combination of conventional quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIP) and quantum dot
infrared photodetectors (QDIP). DWELL detectors, like QDIPs, operate normally without gratings
or optocouplers, while producing reproducible "switch-on recipes" to adjust the working wavelength.
Long-range carriers were discovered in DWELL heterostructures using femtosecond spectroscopy,
demonstrating their high-temperature operating potential. Furthermore, DWELL detectors operate
nonlinearly and in multicolor in the mid-wave infrared (3-5 m), long-wave infrared (LWIR, 8-12 m),
and long infrared (> 14 m) ranges.

13
2.8 “Flexible and Self-Powered Photodetector Arrays Based on All-
Inorganic CsPbBr3 Quantum Dots” [8]
Flexible electronics are gaining popularity due to their potential for wearable and portable
applications. The authors provide flexible and self-powered photodetector arrays based on all-
inorganic perovskite quantum dots (QDs). In comparison to pristine CsPbBr3 QDs, CsBr/KBr-
mediated QDs have improved surface morphology and crystallinity with lower defect densities.
Material characterizations demonstrate that the CsBr/KBr-mediated CsPbBr3 QDs have improved
carrier transport, photoluminescence efficiency, and carrier lifetime. Flexible photodetector arrays
with an optimal CsBr/KBr treatment have a high open-circuit voltage of 1.3 V, a responsivity of 10.1
A W1, a specific detectivity of 9.35 1013 Jones, and an on/off ratio of up to 104. Such performance
is attained, in particular, in the self-sustaining operation mode. Furthermore, outstanding flexibility
and electrical stability are demonstrated, with negligible degradation after 1600 bending cycles. More
importantly, the flexible detector arrays exhibit uniform photo response distribution, which is critical
for practical imaging systems, promoting the practical deployment of perovskite products.

Fig 2.1. Synthesis at room-temperature and structural characterizations of CsBr/KBr assisted CsPbBr3 QD s. a) A flowchart
of the synthesis process of CsPbBr3 QDs with CsBr/KBr treatment. b,c) TEM images of pristine CsPbBr3 QDs (b) and 0.025
CsBr/KBr doped CsPbBr3 QDs (c). The scale bars are 5 nm. d) Low-magnification TEM image and the corresponding
elemental mapping (K). e) High-resolution XPS spectra of K 2p core level of CsBr/KBr assisted QDs thin film.

2.9 “A Surface Plasmon Enhanced Infrared Photodetector Based on

InAs Quantum Dots” [9]

14
These products are popular because they can be easily worn and carried. Here, a self-powered flexible
photodetector array based on whole inorganic perovskite quantum dots (QDs) is reported. Compared
with pristine QDs, CsBr/KBr-mediated CsPbBr3 QDs have improved surface morphology and
crystallinity with reduced defects. The characterization data of the system show the CsBr/KBr-
mediated improvement of carrier transport, photoluminescence efficiency and carrier lifetime of
CsPbBr3 QDs. The modified photodetector array produced with visible CsBr/KBr exhibits a high
open circuit voltage of 1.

Fig 2.2 Plot of Wavelength to the Infrared Response

2.10 “Improved Stability and Photodetector Performance of CsPbI3

Perovskite Quantum Dots by Ligand Exchange with Amino
ethanethiol” [10]
It attempts to increase the stability of CsPbI3 pero skite quantum dots (QDs) in solution and thin films
by replacing the initial long-chain ligand with the short-chain ligand 2-aminoethanethiol (AET).
Oleylamine (OAm) was utilised in conjunction. This results in the creation of a thick ligand barrier
surrounding the particles, which prevents water molecules from penetrating and deteriorating the
film, as well as healing the worm. Furthermore, AET ligand can prevent QD surface capture,
increasing photoluminescence (PL) activity. As a consequence, AET-CsPbI3 QDs retain their optical
characteristics in both solution and film, and more than 95% of the initial PL intensity is retained after
1 hour in water and 2 hours under UV irradiation. Without the use of external bias, photodetectors
based on AET-CsPbI3 QD thin films show exceptional photosensitivity (105 mA W-1) and
detectivity (5 1013 Jones at 450 nm and 3 1013 Jones at 700 nm). displays features. The

15
photodetectors are very stable, retaining more than 95% of their initial performance after 40 hours
without being encapsulated in ambient air.

16
 Chapter 3
Experimental Details

3.1 Experimental Setup

The following materials and components are required to fabricate the photodetector
i. Glass
ii. Scale
iii. Glass Cutter
iv. Beaker
v. Substrate Holder
vi. Distilled water
vii. Detergent Soap
viii. Acetone Solution
ix. 2-Propanol Solution
x. Ultrasonic Cleaner
xi. Desiccator
xii. Hot Plate
xiii. Blower
xiv. 2M ZnO Solution
xv. Spin Coater
xvi. Aluminium and Copper Metal
xvii. Multimeter
xviii. Electrode Deposition Machine
xix. Keysite Source Measuring Unit

3.1.1 Cutting
Cut the 6 pieces of Glass substrate using the cutter and scale of dimension of 15mm*15mm

3.1.2 Cleaning & Drying

i. Clean Beaker/Glass
ii. Mix Liquid soap in DI Water
iii. Use Ultrasonic Cleaner to dissolve detergent in DI water
iv. Ultrasonic cleaning with substrate for 5 mins
17
v. Solution is reusable and can store in a bottle.
vi. Normal DI Water is used to ultrasonicate again for 5 minutes.
vii. Dry beaker using air blower
viii. Acetone is used to ultrasonicate again for 5 minutes.
ix. 2-Prapanol is used to ultrasonicate again for 5 minutes.
x. Dry cleaned substrate using air blower
xi. Put cleaned Devices in desiccator
xii. Clean Ultrasonic cleaner
xiii. Vacuum Desiccator

Fig. 3.1 Ultrasonic Cleaner

18
3.1.3 2 M ZnO Layer Deposition Process
i. Clean the spin coater
ii. Put the aluminium foil in spin coater
iii. Connect Vacuum pump with the spin coater
iv. Put the glass substrate in spin coater
v. Press Vacuum key on the spin coater
vi. Apply settings in spin coater for rpm and time
vii. Take the ZnO solution in a glass syringe.
viii. Put drops of ZnO on the substrate in Spin Coater through hole above uniformly.
ix. Immediately start the RPM of spin coater (3000 rpm 30 seconds)
x. Turn Vacuum off and take substrate out with the help of tweezer Put the substrate on a hot
plate with 150 deg * C / 550 rpm for at least 15 minutes.
xi. Repeat the above (step 3 to step 10) process 4 times.

Fig. 3.2 Spin Coater Containing Substrate and ZnO QDs

3.1.4 Annealing After ZnO layer Deposition

19
i. Set hot plate at 350 * C and 450* C simultaneously for heating the devices.
ii. Put substrate on hot plate for 30 minutes

Fig. 3.3 Hot Plate Containing Substrate

3.1.5 Electrode Deposition

i. Put the Glass Substrate in the holder and close the chamber.
20
ii. Vacuum the chamber

iii. Turn on the current and slightly increase it by 0.1A/s till 35A

iv. Aluminium Metal will stick on the Glass substrate.

v. Close the Diffusor pump and the machine

vi. Take out the substrate the next day and six devices will be formed

Fig. 3.4 Electrode Deposition Machine

21
Fig. 3.5 Block Diagram of the Machine.

22
3.1.6 I-V characteristics
i. For Measuring the I-V characteristics place the Photodetector on the Keysight Source
Measuring Unit.
ii. Check the electrodes of the photodetector with the help of multi metre.
iii. For Dark Current, cover the photodetector with the Black chart paper.
iv. For UV Current, place the UV led on the photodetector.
v. For Red Light Current, place the Red led on the photodetector.
vi. For White Light Current, place the White led on the photodetector.
vii. Measure the I-V characteristics for U.V. , White Light, Red Light and the dark current
using Keysight Source measuring unit from -3V to 3V.
viii. Export the data of I-V to Excel.
ix. After exporting, copy data to origin for plotting the absolute value and fitted graphs of
the devices.

Fig. 3.6 Measuring Al ZnO PDs I-V characteristics

23
 Fig. 3.7 Measuring Dark Current

Fig. 3.8 Measuring White Light Current of Al ZnO QD PDs

24
Fig. 3.9 Measuring Red Light Current of Al ZnO QD PDs

Fig. 3.10 Measuring UV Light Current of Al ZnO QD PDs

25
Fig. 3.11 Keysight Measure Unit

Fig. 3.12 I-V Analyzer

26
3.2 Block Diagram

Fig. 3.16 Block diagram of the Procedure

3.3 Schematic Diagram & Fabricated Device

Fig. 3.17 Schematic Diagram of the Al/Cu ZnO Photodetector

27
Fig. 3.18 Al Fabricated ZnO QD Photodetector

Fig. 3.19 Cu Fabricated ZnO QD Photodetector

28
 Chapter 4
Results and Discussion
4.1 Annealing Temperature Effect
Figure 4.1 shows the I-V characteristics of ZnO QDs based MSM photodetector at different
annealing temperature (250oC and 350oC). From the graph, it is clear that the higher annealing
temperature leads to higher current. This increment in the current at higher temperature is due
to the fact that the higher temperature increases the size of QDs and thus the bandgap of the
ZnO QDs decreases. The decrease in bandgap can be attributed to higher photocurrent.

Figure 4.1 Al-based MSM devices annealed at different temperature

29
4.2 Thickness Effect
Figure 4.2 shows the I-V characteristics of ZnO QDs based MSM photodetector at different
thicknesses of the ZnO QDs layer (3-coating and 4-coatings). From the graph, it is clear that
the higher ZnO QDs thickness leads to the smaller number of photogenerated charge carriers
at the channel region of the MSM photodetector. Therefore, more current is available in the
thinner ZnO QDs layer since light is incident from the other side.

Figure 4.2 Al-based MSM devices coated with different thicknesses of ZnO QDs

30
 Chapter 5
Conclusion & Future Scope

Annealing temperature of ZnO and the type of electrode play the crucial role in deciding the
figures of merit of the photodetector. Therefore, one can tune a photodetector property by
utilizing the appropriate device engineering.

The detailed photoresponse characterization can be performed to get the actual overview of
device spectrum selectivity for different annealing temperature and different electrodes. Also,
different QDs material can be utilized to get the selectivity.

31
 REFERENCES
1. C. Li et al., “Recent advances in solution-processed photodetectors based on inorganic and
hybrid photo-active materials,” Nanoscale, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 2201–2227, Jan. 2020, doi:
10.1039/c9nr07799e.
2. X.-L. Liu, H. Wang, T. Yang, W. Zhang, and X. Gong, “Solution-Processed Ultrasensitive
Polymer Photodetectors with High External Quantum Efficiency and Detectivity,” ACS
Applied Materials & Interfaces, vol. 4, no. 7, pp. 3701–3705, Jul. 2012, doi:
10.1021/am300787m.
3. F. H. L. Koppens, T. Mueller, P. Avouris, A. C. Ferrari, M. S. Vitiello, and M. Polini,
“Photodetectors based on graphene, other two-dimensional materials and hybrid systems,”
Nature Nanotechnology, vol. 9, no. 10, pp. 780–793, Oct. 2014, doi: 10.1038/nnano.2014.215.
4. Z. Wu, Y. Zhai, H. Kim, J. D. Azoulay, and T. N. Ng, “Applications of Solution-Processed
Photodetectors in Wearable Devices, Environmental Monitoring, and Medical Diagnostics ,”
Accounts of Chemical Research, vol. 51, no. 12, pp. 3144–3153, Dec. 2018, doi:
10.1021/acs.accounts.8b00446.
5. X. Zhan et al., “Role of Solvent Vapor Annealing in Improving the Performance of Solution-
Processed Polymer Photodetectors,” Advanced Materials, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 268–284, Dec.
2010, doi: 10.1002/adma.201001402.
6. G. Konstantatos and E. H. Sargent, “Solution-Processed Quantum Dot
Photodetectors,” Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 97, no. 10. Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE), pp. 1666–1683, Oct. 2009. doi:
10.1109/jproc.2009.2025612.
7. S. Krishna, “Quantum dots-in-a-well infrared photodetectors,” Journal of Physics D:
Applied Physics, vol. 38, no. 13. IOP Publishing, pp. 2142–2150, Jun. 17, 2005. doi:
10.1088/0022-3727/38/13/010.
8. K. Shen et al., “Flexible and Self‐Powered Photodetector Arrays Based on All‐
Inorganic CsPbBr 3 Quantum Dots,” Advanced Materials, vol. 32, no. 22. Wiley, p.
2000004, Apr. 21,2020. doi: 10.1002/adma.202000004.

9. C.-C. Chang et al., “A Surface Plasmon Enhanced Infrared Photodetector Based on

InAs Quantum Dots,” Nano Letters, vol. 10, no. 5. American Chemical Society
(ACS), pp. 1704– 1709, Apr. 20, 2010. doi: 10.1021/nl100081j.
10. V. Sukhovatkin, S. Hinds, L. Brzozowski, and E. H. Sargent, “Colloidal Quantum-
Dot Photodetectors Exploiting Multiexciton Generation,” Science, vol. 324, no.
5934. American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), pp. 1542–
32
1544, Jun. 19, 2009. doi: 10.1126/science.1173812.

33