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Published on 06 April 2020 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016254-FP001
2nd Edition
Pathways for Production
Transportation Biofuels
View Online
Green Chemistry Series
Editor-in-chief:
James H. Clark, Department of Chemistry, University of York, UK
Series editors:
George A. Kraus, Iowa State University, USA
Andrzej Stankiewicz, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
Peter Siedl, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Titles in the series:

1: The Future of Glycerol: New Uses of a Versatile Raw Material
2: Alternative Solvents for Green Chemistry
3: Eco-Friendly Synthesis of Fine Chemicals
4: Sustainable Solutions for Modern Economies
5: Chemical Reactions and Processes under Flow Conditions
6: Radical Reactions in Aqueous Media
7: Aqueous Microwave Chemistry
8: The Future of Glycerol: 2nd Edition
9: Transportation Biofuels: Novel Pathways for the Production of Ethanol,
Biogas and Biodiesel
10: Alternatives to Conventional Food Processing
11: Green Trends in Insect Control
12: A Handbook of Applied Biopolymer Technology: Synthesis, Degradation
and Applications
13: Challenges in Green Analytical Chemistry
14: Advanced Oil Crop Biorefineries
15: Enantioselective Homogeneous Supported Catalysis
16: Natural Polymers Volume 1: Composites
17: Natural Polymers Volume 2: Nanocomposites
18: Integrated Forest Biorefineries
19: Sustainable Preparation of Metal Nanoparticles: Methods and
Applications
20: Alternative Solvents for Green Chemistry: 2nd Edition
21: Natural Product Extraction: Principles and Applications
22: Element Recovery and Sustainability
23: Green Materials for Sustainable Water Remediation and Treatment
24: The Economic Utilisation of Food Co-Products
25: Biomass for Sustainable Applications: Pollution Remediation and Energy
26: From C-H to C-C Bonds: Cross-Dehydrogenative-Coupling
27: Renewable Resources for Biorefineries
28: Transition Metal Catalysis in Aerobic Alcohol Oxidation
29: Green Materials from Plant Oils
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30: Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) Based Blends, Composites and

Nanocomposites
31: Ball Milling Towards Green Synthesis: Applications, Projects, Challenges
32: Porous Carbon Materials from Sustainable Precursors
33: Heterogeneous Catalysis for Today’s Challenges: Synthesis, Character-
ization and Applications

34: Chemical Biotechnology and Bioengineering
35: Microwave-Assisted Polymerization
36: Ionic Liquids in the Biorefinery Concept: Challenges and Perspectives
37: Starch-based Blends, Composites and Nanocomposites
38: Sustainable Catalysis: With Non-endangered Metals, Part 1
39: Sustainable Catalysis: With Non-endangered Metals, Part 2
40: Sustainable Catalysis: Without Metals or Other Endangered
Elements, Part 1
41: Sustainable Catalysis: Without Metals or Other Endangered
Elements, Part 2
42: Green Photo-active Nanomaterials
43: Commercializing Biobased Products: Opportunities, Challenges,
Benefits, and Risks
44: Biomass Sugars for Non-Fuel Applications
45: White Biotechnology for Sustainable Chemistry
46: Green and Sustainable Medicinal Chemistry: Methods, Tools and Strat-
egies for the 21st Century Pharmaceutical Industry
47: Alternative Energy Sources for Green Chemistry
48: High Pressure Technologies in Biomass Conversion
49: Sustainable Solvents: Perspectives from Research, Business and
International Policy
50: Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass: Advances in Science and Technology
51: Catalyst-free Organic Synthesis
52: Hazardous Reagent Substitution: A Pharmaceutical Perspective
53: Alternatives to Conventional Food Processing: 2nd Edition
54: Sustainable Synthesis of Pharmaceuticals: Using Transition Metal
Complexes as Catalysts
55: Intensification of Biobased Processes
56: Sustainable Catalysis for Biorefineries
57: Supercritical and Other High-pressure Solvent Systems: For Extraction,
Reaction and Material Processing
58: Biobased Aerogels: Polysaccharide and Protein-based Materials
59: Rubber Recycling: Challenges and Developments
60: Green Chemistry for Surface Coatings, Inks and Adhesives: Sustainable
Applications
61: Green Synthetic Processes and Procedures
62: Resource Recovery from Wastes: Towards a Circular Economy
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63: Flow Chemistry: Integrated Approaches for Practical Applications

64: Transition Towards a Sustainable Biobased Economy
65: Transportation Biofuels: Pathways for Production: 2nd Edition
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Transportation Biofuels
Pathways for Production
2nd Edition
Alwin Hoogendoorn
The Centre of Expertise Biobased Economy, The Netherlands
Email: alwin.hoogendoorn@yahoo.com
and
Han van Kasteren

Eindhoven University of Technology and the Centre of Expertise Biobased
Economy, The Netherlands
Email: j.m.n.v.kasteren@tue.nl
Published on 06 April 2020 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016254-FP001 View Online
Green Chemistry Series No. 65
Print ISBN: 978-1-78801-504-2

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Print ISSN: 1757-7039
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r Alwin Hoogendoorn and Han van Kasteren 2020
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Preface to the 2nd Edition
This book is the update of the previous version from 2011, RSC Green
Chemistry Series No. 9, Transportation Biofuels: Novel Pathways for the
Production of Ethanol, Biogas and Biodiesel, based on biofuel research and
development, and originating from the principle of ‘‘making better use of
waste streams and resources’’. Since 2011, the use of biofuels has been
increasingly more accepted although still, a strong debate is going on about
the perceived side effects of deforestation and inappropriate land use by the
existing production pathways. In this light, the demand for alternative
methods that use waste streams and nonfood resources like cellulose is
increasing. The attempts to produce these so called second generation
biofuels have still met a lot of setbacks so much has still to be done
improving and optimizing the biological production pathways for trans-
portation biofuels. At the point that man-made climate change has been
accepted as a fact, it is time to provide information on what the state of
the art is for existing biological production pathways and look ahead to the
developments of new promising future pathways for new fossil CO2 free
fuels. This turning point, in addition to a world that is struggling with the
change to a non- fossil based economy, has been the main driver for the
authors to write this update and they hope that this book supports the reader
in obtaining the personal and professional insights needed to contribute to
the energy transition.
Alwin Hoogendoorn and Han van Kasteren
Eindhoven
Transportation Biofuels: Pathways for Production: 2nd Edition

By Alwin Hoogendoorn and Han van Kasteren
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org
vii
Preface to the 1st Edition
With this book, the authors intend to provide insight into three new promising
and innovative pathways for the biological production of the main transpor-
tation biofuels: biodiesel, ethanol and methane. The pathways described are
nonconventional and provide higher product yields, less stringent feedstock
specifications, lower chemical additive demand, lower waste production and
much better energy balances when compared to the more traditional pro-
duction methods, especially for biodiesel and ethanol. It is the result of a
seven-year journey in the field of biofuel research and development and
originated from the principle of ‘‘making better use of waste streams and
resources’’. Han van Kasteren from Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e)
and Alwin Hoogendoorn from Ingenia Consultants and Engineers found each
other in this common aim. Combining the research experience from the TU/e
and the practical experience from Ingenia appeared to be a success formula for
increasing the know-how and application of new processes for biofuels. Since
the use of biofuels is increasingly more accepted and growing, the efforts seem
to have paid off. Still, much has to be done since biofuel production is still in
its infancy and there is a lot of room for improvement in order to become the
dominant transportation fuel. At the turning point from infancy to adulthood,
it is time for a moment to give guidance and look ahead to the developments
of new promising pathways for biofuels. This turning point, in addition to a
world oil production that is struggling to meet demand, has been the main
driver for the authors to write this book and they hope the reader finds much
wisdom and insights in this book for a bright biofuel future.
Alwin Hoogendoorn and Han van Kasteren

Eindhoven

viii
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Biological Conversion of Syngas into Ethanol 3

2.1 First Generation of Ethanol Production 3
2.2 Introduction of Biological Conversion of Syngas into
Ethanol 4
2.3 Clostridium ljungdahlii and Other Strains 6
2.3.1 Introduction 6
2.3.2 Initial Growth Experiments (Medium
Selection) 9
2.4 Conceptual Design: Gasification and Syngas
Cleaning 10
2.4.1 Gasification Techniques 10
2.4.2 Syngas Purification 16
2.5 Bioreactor Design 18
2.5.1 Trickle-bed Reactor (Packed Bed or Monolith) 20
2.5.2 Liquid–Gas Membrane Reactor (Coskata) 21
2.5.3 Bubble and Micro-bubble Reactor 21
2.5.4 Reactor with External Venturi Water–Gas
Mixing 21
2.6 Monolith Bioreactor Mass Transfer and Energy
Consumption 21
2.6.1 Liquid/Gas Flow Patterns in Monolith
Channels 21
2.6.2 Bioreactor Mass Transfer 23
2.6.3 Thickness of the Active Layer in Biofilm
(Immobilized Cells) 24

ix
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x Contents
2.6.4 Pressure Drop 25

2.6.5 Monolith vs. Conventional Bioreactors 25
2.7 Design of a Continuous Bioreactor Set-up 26
2.7.1 Design of a Continuous Bioreactor System 26
2.8 Analytical Methods 28
2.9 Experimental Results 29

2.9.1 Initial Cell Attachment to the Monolith
Column 29
2.9.2 Biofilm Formation in the Monolith Column 30
2.9.3 Biofilm Test with Glucose as the
Main C-source 32
2.9.4 CO Conversion in the Monolith Column 35
2.9.5 CO Conversion into Ethanol by Lowering pH
in the Monolith Column 37
2.9.6 Designed Medium Test 38
2.9.7 Biofilm Test with CO as the Only C-source 43
2.9.8 Product Concentration Boost by Lowering
the Dilution Rate 44
2.9.9 CO Conversion in Closed Bottles (Batch System) 46
2.9.10 Gas-to-liquid Mass Transfer Coefficient Test 49
2.10 Ethanol Distillation and Dehydration 52
2.10.1 Ethanol Distillation 52
2.10.2 Ethanol Dehydration 54
2.10.3 Energy Efficient Distilling and
Dehydration Options 55
2.11 Ethanol as a Transportation Biofuel 61
2.11.1 Anhydrous Ethanol in Low Percentage
Petrol Blends 62
2.11.2 Anhydrous Ethanol in High Percentage
Blends (E85) 63
2.12 Industrial Ethanol Production from Lignocellulose 65
2.12.1 Industrial Ethanol Production by Means of
Gasification 65
2.13 Industrial Ethanol Production by Means of
Hydrolysis to Sugars 67
2.14 Discussion 68
2.14.1 Experimental Results 68
2.14.2 Gasifier and Syngas Cleaning 70
2.14.3 Reactor Design 70
2.14.4 Energy Efficient Distilling 70
Abbreviations and Nomenclature 71
References 71
View Online
Contents xi
Chapter 3 Biological Conversion of Syngas into Methane 75

3.1 Introduction 75
3.1.1 Objectives and Introduction 75
3.1.2 Current Drawbacks for the Catalytic Pathway
to Methane 78
3.2 Selection of Bacterial Strains 78
3.2.1 Methanogenic Bacteria 78
3.2.2 Acetate Producing Bacteria 80
3.2.3 Water Gas Shift Bacteria 81
3.3 Metabolism and Reaction Pathways 82
3.3.1 Similarities with Anaerobic Digestion Systems 82
3.3.2 Metabolism 83
3.3.3 The Indirect Acetate Pathway 85
3.3.4 Direct Methane Producing Tri-cultures 88
3.3.5 Bacterial Cultivation and Medium
Preparation 90
3.4 Selection of Bioreactors 90
3.4.1 Common Bioreactor Types 90
3.4.2 Selection of Bioreactors for the Intended
Process 92
3.5 Syngas Cleaning and Product Gas Purification 95
3.5.1 Syngas Composition and Cleaning 95
3.5.2 Product Gas Purification into SNG 100
3.5.3 Typical SNG Quality Demands 107
3.6 Technical Feasibility 108
3.6.1 General Assumptions 108
3.6.2 Theoretical Reaction Schemes for Two
Gasifier Types 109
3.6.3 Process Design for the Indirect Acetate
Pathway 111
3.6.4 Process Design for the Direct Tri-culture
Pathway 114
3.6.5 Mass Balance and Process Energy Efficiency 116
3.6.6 Comparison of the Biological and the
Catalytical Pathway to SNG 118
3.7 Fermentation of Biogas Together with Hydrogen
Derived from Electrolysis 119
3.7.1 Biomass Feedstock and Bacteria Types 119
3.7.2 Current Demonstration Projects with
Hydrogen Fermentation 120
3.7.3 Using Low-cost Electricity for Biogas
Fermentation Processes 122
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xii Contents
3.8 Financial Analysis 122

3.8.1 Value of SNG 122
3.8.2 Cash Flow Calculations for the Biological
and Catalytical Pathway 124
3.8.3 Impact of Fuel Purchasing Price 125
3.9 Discussion 126

3.9.1 Bacteria 126
3.9.2 Process Design Options 126
3.9.3 Energy Efficiency 127
3.9.4 Financial Analysis 127
Abbreviations and Nomenclature 128
References 128
Chapter 4 Enzymatic Biodiesel 132

4.1 First Generation Biodiesel Production 132
4.2 Suitable Feedstock for Biodiesel Processes 134
4.3 Introduction to Enzymatic Biodiesel
Production 137
4.4 Lipase-catalysed Production of Biodiesel Fuel 139
4.4.1 Reaction Mechanism of Lipases for Biodiesel
Production 139
4.4.2 Typical Lipases for Biodiesel Production 140
4.4.3 Porcine Pancreatic Lipase (PPL) 140
4.4.4 Candida Antarctica Lipase B 140
4.4.5 Thermomyces Lanuginosus Lipase 141
4.4.6 Immobilization of Enzyme 142
4.5 Comparison of Enzymatic Process with Basic
Process for Biodiesel Production 143
4.6 Experiments on the Enzymatic Transesterification
Process 144
4.6.1 Enzymatic Transesterification Process 144
4.6.2 Solid Enzyme 144
4.6.3 Liquid Enzyme 144
4.6.4 Characterization 144
4.6.5 Results Comparison of Transesterification
Activity of Enzymes 146
4.6.6 Transesterification Activity of Modified PPL 147
4.6.7 Effect of pH and Modification of the
Activity of PPL 148
4.6.8 Effect of Precipitation Time After
Modification 150
4.6.9 Effect of Ethanol Amount 151
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Contents xiii
4.6.10 Effect of Temperature on the Activity

of PPL 151
4.6.11 Effect of Alcohol Type on the Activity of
Modified PPL 153
4.6.12 Reusability of Modified PPL 153
4.6.13 Conclusions on the Experimental Work

on Enzymatic Transesterification 153
4.7 Enzymatic Pretreatment of Used
Cooking Oil 154
4.7.1 Reaction Mechanism 154
4.7.2 Esterification Process 156
4.7.4 Results Comparison of Esterification
Activity of Enzymes 156
4.7.5 Effect of Glycerol, Water and Methanol
on Enzyme Activity 157
4.7.6 Effect of CalB L Amount, Stirring Speed
and Temperature on Esterification 160
4.7.7 Reusability of CalB L 161
4.7.8 Kinetics of Esterification Using CalB
L/Glycerol and Scale Up 163
4.7.9 Pretreatment of Artificial Used Cooking
Oil Using CalB L-Glycerol 165
4.7.10 Mechanism 166
4.7.11 Conclusions on the Experiments on the
Esterification of a Sunflower/Oleic Acid
Mixture 169
4.8 Biorefinery Routes with High Added Value by
Enzymatic Transesterification 169
4.8.1 MG/DG Production 170
4.8.2 Glycerolysis 171
4.8.3 Partial Alcoholysis of Triglycerides 172
4.8.4 Hydrolysis of Triglycerides 174
4.8.5 MG and DG Separation 175
4.8.6 Molecular Distillation 175
4.8.7 Supercritical Extraction 175
4.8.8 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 177
4.9 Experimental Liquid–Liquid Extraction to
Separate MG and DG 177
4.9.2 Separation of MG and DG Using
Liquid–Liquid Extraction 177
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xiv Contents
4.10 Glycerol-free Biodiesel Application as a

Transportation Fuel 181
4.10.1 Diesel and Biodiesel Fuel Standards 181
4.11 Enzymatic Biodiesel Application as a
Transportation Fuel 181
4.11.1 Basic Process Design 181

4.11.2 Technical and Economical Feasibility
for Enzymatic Biodiesel 184
4.12 Discussion 186
Appendix A Table of Stock Solutions Used for
Calibration 187
Appendix B Chemicals Used for Calibration of Biodiesel
Analysis. (Chapter 4) 188
References 188
Chapter 5 Sustainability and Future Directions 192

5.1 Introduction 192
5.2 EU and Global Biomass Availability 194
5.2.1 EU-28 Biomass Production 194
5.2.2 Global Biomass Production 194
5.3 Scenarios for Transportation Biofuels Until 2060 196
5.4 Greenhouse Gas Performance of Transportation
Biofuels 197
5.5 Formic Acid 199
5.6 Metal Fuels 200
References 201
Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks 203

6.1 Biological Conversion of Syngas into Ethanol 203
6.2 Syngas Fermentation into Methane 204
6.3 Enzymatic Biodiesel Production 205
6.4 Maturity and Market Chances for the Three
Technologies 206
Subject Index 207

About the Authors
Alwin Hoogendoorn is portfolio research manager at the Centre of Expertise

Biobased Economy of both Avans University of Applied Sciences and HZ
University of Applied Sciences (www.coebbe.nl) and has been involved in
both bioenergy R&D and the actual realisation of bioenergy and biofuel
plants during the last 20 years.
Han van Kasteren is both employed at Technical University Eindhoven
and the Centre of Expertise Biobased Economy, where he is a professor for
the research area Biobased Products. Han van Kasteren’s expertise is spe-
cialised in the areas of energy and waste technologies, e.g. novel biofuel
production processes, biodiesel and bio-ethanol, thermal treatment of
(bio)wastes, pyrolysis and gasification, and recycling processes for plastic
containing waste streams.
Both Alwin Hoogendoorn and Han van Kasteren have experience in the
areas of novel biofuel production processes and have been working on, for
instance, enzymatic biodiesel processes, digestion processes, and biological
conversion of syngas into both ethanol and methane.
Both authors are considered to be pragmatic and hands-on: various re-
search projects were executed and practical knowledge has been gained
while using pilot scale test installations or demonstration plants in co-
operation with industrial partners.

xv
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Dutch government agency RVO and Ir. J. Reijnders
of RVO for their enduring financial support for Dutch energy and biofuels
research. The authors gratefully acknowledge Arjen Rinzema PhD and
Sina Salim PhD at WUR for their contribution to the study on the
syngas fermentation towards ethanol. Additionally, we are grateful to
Qian Zhou PhD from Avans University of Applied Sciences, and Ingenia
Consultants & Engineers B.V. for their important contribution on the use
of enzymes for biodiesel production. Without their contributions, this
book would not have been possible.

xvi
Published on 06 April 2020 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016254-00001
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
The transportation industry is still largely reliant on fossil fuels, whose use
and extraction pose significant environmental costs. Biofuels produced from
renewable resources like biomass offer a more sustainable alternative and
their production currently amounts to 143 billion litres on a yearly basis.
However, it is important that production methods should be energy efficient
and that feedstocks should not compete with food sources. Biofuels that
meet these criteria are referred to as second-generation biofuels.
Since approximately 2012, the EU Commission has introduced new
policies aimed at starting the transition from conventional (crop/food-based)
biofuels to biofuels from non-food feedstock that deliver greater climate
benefits. In 2015, the EU parliament also set a 6% limit for the maximum
contribution of first-generation biofuels and bio liquids to energy con-
sumption in transport for the year 2020.
During the last decade, financial stress in the European transportation
biofuels industry has been seen. There are huge differences between EU
installed production capacity and actual EU production in both the fuel
ethanol and the biodiesel industries (see also Section 2.1 and 4.1).
However, a positive side effect of this current financial situation is that
innovation in industrial processes has been stimulated and transitions
towards second generation biofuel production, along with improved effi-
ciency and better financial results, may succeed more easily.
According to the authors, both the prospect of (future) declining oil
production and unattractive profit margins for current production processes
have resulted in the urgent need for new and more energy efficient
production pathways for transportation biofuels.
With this book, we intend to provide insights into promising new and in-
novative pathways for the biological production of the current main transpor-
tation biofuels: biodiesel, ethanol and methane. The pathways we intend to
describe are non-conventional and should provide higher product yields, less

1
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Biological Conversion of Syngas into Ethanol 13

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Figure 2.5 The 2 main types of fluidized bed gasifiers.13
2.4.1.2 Fluidised Bed Gasification (BFB, CFB)

With this type of gasifier, air or steam is injected from the bottom of the gas-
ification reactor (Figure 2.5). This upward air or steam movement results in fluid-
like behavior of the bed material and excellent heat transfer within the reactor.
Typical characteristics:
Operating temperature: 750–950 1C

Fuel particle size: 0–20 mm
Typical tar concentration: o5 g Nm3
Fluidized bed gasifiers can be applied for various sizes. Some European
examples are:
Värnamö, Sweden (high pressure CFB)

ARBRE, North Yorkshire, UK (high pressure CFB)
Skive, Denmark (BFB)
Amergas, Geertruidenberg, Netherlands (demolition wood CFB)
2.4.1.3 Entrained Flow Gasification (EFG)

The fuel is often pulverised prior to gasification and most often a pressur-
ised reactor is used with oxygen as the gasification agent (Figure 2.6).
Typical characteristics:
Operating temperature: 1200–1500 1C

Pressure: 20–40 bar
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BUSH-FIRE ON THE MAKONDE PLATEAU
This ascent, though barren of results in other respects, has

produced one small monument of African art, a drawing of our
climbing caravan, which is here offered to the reader’s inspection.
The native artist has quite correctly indicated the steepness of the
mountain by the vertical line representing the road. The confusion of
circles and curves at the lower end stands for the buildings of the
Mission station:—the foundations of a church vast enough, should it
ever be finished, to hold all the converted heathen of Africa and the
adjacent continents; the ci devant cowhouse, in which the two aged
clergymen have found a primitive refuge after the destruction of their
beautiful buildings by the Majimaji, the boys’ school and the girls’
school—two large bamboo huts in the native style; and the dwellings
of the native teachers and boarders. The curly labyrinth at the upper
end of the line is the top of the mountain with its gneiss blocks. The
two uppermost climbers are the kirongozi or guide and one of our
men, the third is Captain Ewerbeck, and the fourth myself. The
District Commissioner is readily recognizable by the epaulettes with
the two stars denoting his military rank, which belong to the uniform
worn on duty by this class of officials. Of all attributes of the white
man this seems to make the greatest impression on the native mind,
since, in every drawing in my possession where
officers are represented, their rank is invariably (and
always correctly) indicated by the number of stars. In
the same way the native draughtsman never makes a
mistake with regard to the stripes on the sleeves of
non-commissioned officers, black or white. The
advantages of a well-developed corporation are here
evident! Ewerbeck and Seyfried are about the same
age as myself, and our chest and other measurements
are pretty nearly identical. This I suppose must be
the reason why the inhabitants of Lindi, and later on
those of the interior, have promoted me to the rank
of captain; at Lindi I went by the name of Hoffmani
mpya, “the new captain” (Hauptmann). The drawing
here reproduced is evidence of my promotion, the
artist having bestowed the epaulettes on me as well
as on Ewerbeck. The figures behind us are of no
importance, they are only the rest of our party. Now,
however, comes the psychologically noteworthy
point; I figure in the picture twice over, first
laboriously climbing the mountain, and then in
majestic pose at the top, in the act of photographing
OUR ASCENT the African landscape. You must know that the tripod
OF MTANDI
MOUNTAIN. shown in the drawing is that of my 13 × 18 cm.
DRAWN BY camera, the zig-zags between its legs are the brass
JUMA struts which keep it rigid; the long snake-like line is
the rubber tube for the release of the instantaneous
shutter—of which, as a matter of fact, I could make
no use on account of the mist,—and the photographer is, as above
stated, myself. The men behind me are my personal attendants to
whom the more fragile parts of the apparatus are usually entrusted.
The graphic reproduction of this ascent is no great achievement on
the part of the native intellect, but nevertheless it is a very important
document for the beginnings of art in general and for the African
point of view in particular. To the ethnographer, of all men, the most
apparently insignificant matters are not without importance, and
this is why the prospect of working undisturbed for many months in
these surroundings is such a delight to me.
Our ascent of Mtandi was concluded, at any rate for the present, by
a ceremonious breakfast, to which the two missionaries had kindly
invited us. Englishmen, as is well known, live extremely well in their
own country; but abroad, too, even in the far interior of a continent,
they know how to make the best of things. I was here impressed with
the fact that Masasi must be a “very nourishing district,” as Wilhelm
Raabe would say. We had no champagne, it is true—Archdeacon
Carnon had set it before us on the previous day, in a huge water-jug,
apologizing for the absence of champagne glasses. We showed him
that we were able to appreciate his hospitality, even in the absence of
such refinements.
The merriest part of our whole Mtandi expedition, however, was
the ride home, with the Mission pupils trotting along beside us. The
little fellows looked warlike enough with their bows and arrows, and
seemed desirous of shouting each other down. I could not at first
make out what they wanted, but on reaching home, that is to say, our
police-post, I soon understood that their object was nothing less than
to offer me the whole of their martial equipment for my ethnographic
collection. But not as a present—giving things away for nothing is not
in the negro’s line, and in this he resembles our German rustics. On
the contrary, these young people demanded fancy prices for the bows
which they had made on purpose to sell them to the mzungu, that
remarkable character who buys all sorts of native rubbish. I
purchased such of their wares as seemed suitable for my objects, and
thought it advisable to prevent disappointment to those whose offers
had been refused by giving each a copper or two out of the famous jar
of which we shall hear again later on. Before doing so, however, I
instituted a pleasing experiment, instructive for myself and highly
enjoyable for the youth of Masasi, in the shape of an archery
competition.
Comparative ethnography has for a long time past busied itself
with the task of classifying and analyzing all the technical and mental
activities of man. Thus some decades ago, the American, Morse,[12]
ascertained that all men who shoot, or ever have shot, with the bow,
have certain definite ways of drawing it. There are about half-a-
dozen distinct methods, which are so distributed over the globe that,
in some places the same release (or “loose” as it is technically called)
is known to be common to the whole of a large area, while elsewhere
the most abrupt contrasts may be observed between contiguous
nations or tribes. It might be supposed that there could be no
possible differences in so simple an action as that of drawing a bow;
but experiment shows otherwise, and this experiment I have made
over and over again in the course of my lectures.
It is a thousand to one that any German (leaving out of
consideration the English and the Belgians, who still practise archery
according to the rules of the game, and can distinguish a good “loose”
from a bad one), when he has taken the bow in his left hand and
grasped the arrow and the string in his right, will hold the notch as it
rests on the string between his thumb and forefinger, and thus only
indirectly draw the string by means of the arrow. This, which is the
“loose” we used on the little toy bows of our boyhood, is the very
worst conceivable, as anyone who understands the other methods
can convince himself by every shot he tries. It is obvious that the
arrow must slip from the fingers if a moderately strong pull is given.
The best proof of the inferiority of this particular “loose” is the fact
that it is very seldom found among those sections of mankind who
still use the bow as a serious and effective weapon, whether in war or
hunting. These handle it after a very different fashion. Only where
the bow is a mere survival, and only used as a toy by children (the
most conservative class in the community), as for instance among
ourselves, this method, quite useless for an effective shot, is
practised simply because no better is known.
If I felt compelled to take the boys at Masasi Mission as a standard
for estimating the culture of the race, I should have to say that here
too the bow is a survival, for nine-tenths of the whole multitude shot
in the same way as our boys at home, but with one difference; we
hold the bow horizontally, the African boys held it vertically, the
arrow lying on the left side of the string between the index and
middle finger. Only one-tenth of the whole number used a different
“loose,” and these, significantly enough, were older boys, who
therefore had evidently taken over with them into their Christianity a
considerable dose of old African conservatism.
My competition was arranged with a view, not so much of
registering the number of hits and misses, as of observing the
method of drawing; but, notwithstanding, I must say that the little
archers acquitted themselves by no means contemptibly. It is true
that the distances were short, and my mark was scarcely a small one,
being a copy of the Tägliche Rundschau; but the greater number sent
their arrows inside the rings I had hastily drawn on this improvised
target. They were proud of their success, too; and when I praised a
good shot it was good to see the triumphant looks that the little black
hero cast round on his admiring companions.
As to the other methods, if I were asked the question in my Leipzig
lecture-room, I should have to answer it at once. As it is, I am
enabled to claim the privilege of the investigator and excuse myself
from giving further information till I have collected sufficient
material by a series of fresh observations. I hope to gratify my
readers’ thirst for knowledge when I have traversed the whole plain
north of the Rovuma, and, encamped on the cool heights of the
Makonde plateau, find leisure to look back and take stock of my
studies. Till then—Au revoir, Messieurs!
MNYASA HUNTER WITH DOG. DRAWN BY SALIM MATCLA
CHAPTER VI
NATIVE LIFE SEEN FROM THE INSIDE
Masasi, end of July, 1906.
Every normal human being is a walking demonstration of the theory

of adaptation to environment. I have been in Africa barely two
months, and only as yet a fraction of a month in the interior, and yet
I feel quite at home already. After all, I could scarcely do otherwise.
On the 21st, when we had only lived together a few days, Mr.
Ewerbeck marched away before daybreak, by the light of a lantern
borne before him through the darkness of the tropic night, to attend
to higher duties at Lindi, viz., the reception of the eight delegates
from the Reichstag, now fairly embarked on that desperate
adventure which for many months past has kept our daily press busy
celebrating their heroism.
Nils Knudsen remains behind as the last relic of civilization. His
name alone is sufficient to indicate his Scandinavian origin, and he
is, in fact, a fair-haired descendant of the Vikings. He joined the
expedition so unobtrusively that at first I scarcely noticed the
presence of a third European. While Ewerbeck and I marched
proudly at the head of our long line of followers, Knudsen usually
brought up the rear, and in camp he remained modestly in the
background. Now that we have fixed our headquarters at Masasi, he
has become prominent by virtue of his office; he is supposed to keep
things straight here and exercise some supervision over the native
local authorities. Whether this is necessary, I am at present unable to
judge, having as yet no insight into the difficulties of internal
administration in a large district like Lindi. However, a man who
knows the country as well as Ewerbeck does, would hardly have
taken such a measure without good reason. In the meantime I have
persuaded Knudsen to quit his tent—which, to judge by its venerable
appearance, must have been left behind as too far gone to take away,
by Vasco Da Gama when he landed in this part of Africa—and come
to live with me in the rest-house. Now he is installed, with his scanty
possessions—two old tin trunks, which do not even appear to be full
—on one side of the spacious apartment, while I with my princely
outfit reside on the other. He is, however, abundantly compensated
for the niggardliness with which fortune has treated him by goodness
of heart and fineness of feeling. Knudsen’s life has been adventurous
enough, and recalls to some extent the fate of that English sailor who
was wrecked among the aborigines of South-East Australia, and had
to live as a savage among savages. My fair-haired neighbour did not
fare quite so badly as that; but he has had plenty of time to “go Fanti”
had he been so disposed. So far as I have yet ascertained anything
about his personal affairs, he started life as cabin-boy on board a
merchant vessel, from which he ran away about ten years ago, when
it was anchored in a harbour of Madagascar. He wandered about this
island for some years, and at last found his way across to the
mainland and into the hinterland of Lindi. He says that he never
learnt a trade, but professes to know something of a great many, and
can act on occasion as mason, builder, carpenter, and locksmith.
Indeed he erected all the buildings at the Luisenfelde mines, far
south near the Rovuma, which I may yet be able to visit, and was
general factotum there as long as they continued working. Since then
the municipality of Lindi has appointed him head instructor at the
industrial school, from which post he is at present on leave of
absence.
THROUGH THE BUSH ON A COLLECTING EXCURSION
Our manner of life here is, of course, essentially different from that
followed on the march. Life on the march is always full of charm,
more especially in a country quite new to one; and mine has so far
been entirely without drawbacks. In African travel-books we find
that almost every expedition begins with a thousand difficulties. The
start is fixed for a certain hour, but no carriers appear, and when at
last the leader of the expedition has, with infinite pains, got his men
together, they have still endless affairs to settle, wives and
sweethearts to take leave of, and what not, and have usually vanished
from the traveller’s ken on the very first evening. In my case
everything went like clockwork from the start. I can blame no one
but myself for the quarter of an hour’s delay in starting from Lindi,
which was caused by my being late for breakfast. On the second
morning the askari could not quite get on with the folding of the
tent, and Moritz with the best will in the world failed to get my
travelling-lamp into its case, which was certainly a very tight fit. But
with these exceptions we have all behaved as if we had been on the
road for months. Anyone who wants a substantial breakfast first
thing in the morning, after the English fashion, should not go
travelling in Africa. I have given directions to wake me at five.
Punctually to the minute, the sentinel calls softly into the tent,
“Amka, bwana” (“Wake up, sir”). I throw both feet over the high
edge of the trough-like camp bed, and jump into my khaki suit. The
water which Kibwana, in the performance of his duties as
housemaid, has thoughtfully placed at the tent door overnight, has
acquired a refreshing coolness in the low temperature of a tropic
night in the dry season. The shadow of the European at his toilet is
sharply outlined on the canvas by the burning lamp, which, however,
does not confine its illumination to its owner, but radiates a circle of
light on the shining brown faces of the carriers and the askari. The
former are busy tying up their loads for the march, while the soldiers
are ready to rush on the tent like a tiger on his prey, so soon as the
white man shall have finished dressing and come out. In the
twinkling of an eye the tent is folded, without a word spoken, or a
superfluous movement; it is division of labour in the best sense of
the word, faultlessly carried out. Meanwhile the traveller goes to his
camp-table, takes a hurried sip of tea, cocoa, or whatever his
favourite beverage may be, eating at the same time a piece of bread
baked by himself, and now stands ready for the march. “Tayari?”
(“Ready?”) his voice rings out over the camp. “Bado” (“Not yet”) is
the invariable answer. It is always the same lazy or awkward
members of the party who utter this word beloved of the African
servant. The beginner lets himself be misled by it at first, but in a few
days he takes no more notice of the “Bado,” but fires off his “Safari!”
(literally “Journey!”) or (as speedily introduced by me), “Los!”[13] at
the band in general, flourishes his walking-stick boldly in the air,
thereby indicating to the two leading askari the direction of the
march, and the day’s work has begun.
I do not know how other tribes are accustomed to behave at the
moment of starting, but my Wanyamwezi are certainly neither to
hold nor to bind on these occasions. With evident difficulty each one
has got his load lifted to head or shoulder, and stands in his place
bending under the weight. At the word of command arises an uproar
which baffles description. All the pent-up energy of their throats
rings out into the silent forest; stout sticks rattle in a wild, irregular
rhythm on the wooden cases, and, alas! also on the tin boxes, which
furnish only too good a resonator. The noise is infernal, but it is a
manifestation of joy and pleasure. We are off! and, once on the
march, the Wanyamwezi are in their element. Before long the chaos
of noise is reduced to some order; these men have an infinitely
delicate sense of rhythm, and so the din gradually resolves itself into
a kind of march sung to a drum accompaniment, whose charm even
the legs of the askari—otherwise too dignified for such childish
goings-on—cannot resist.
READY FOR MARCHING (MASASI)
Oh! the beauty of these early mornings in the tropics! It is now

getting on for six o’clock; the darkness of night has quickly yielded to
the short twilight of dawn; the first bright rays gild the light clouds
floating in the sky, and suddenly the disc of the sun rises in its
wonderful majesty above the horizon. With swift, vigorous strides,
and still in close order, the procession hastens through the dew-
drenched bush, two soldiers in the van, as if in a military expedition;
then, after an interval we Europeans, immediately followed by our
personal servants with guns, travelling-flask and camp-stool. Then
comes the main body of the soldiers followed by the long line of
carriers and the soldiers’ boys, and, lastly, to keep the laggards up to
the mark, and also to help any who have to fall out from exhaustion
or illness, two soldiers bringing up the rear. An admirable figure is
the mnyampara or headman. His position is in a sense purely
honorary, for he receives not a farthing more wages than the lowest
of his subordinates. Perhaps even this expression should not be used;
he is rather primus inter pares. The mnyampara is everywhere. He
is in front when the master sends for him, and he is back at the very
end of the line (which becomes longer with every hour of the march)
if there is a sick man needing his help. In such a case he carries the
man’s load himself, as a matter of course, and brings him safely to
camp. It seems to me that I have made an unusually happy choice in
Pesa mbili. He is young, like the great majority of my men, probably
between 23 and 25, of a deep black complexion, with markedly
negroid features, and a kind of feline glitter in his eyes; he is only of
medium height, but uncommonly strong and muscular; he speaks
shocking Swahili—far worse than my own—and withal he is a
treasure. It is not merely that he is an incomparable singer, whose
pleasant baritone voice never rests whether on the march or in camp,
but he thoroughly understands the organization of camp life, the
distribution of tasks and the direction of his men. The demands
made on such a man by the end of the day’s march are arduous
enough.
The delicious coolness of the morning has long since given place to
a perceptibly high temperature; the white man has exchanged his
light felt hat or still lighter travelling-cap for the heavy tropical
helmet, and the naked bodies of the carriers are coated with a
shining polish. These, who have been longing for the day to get warm
ever since they awoke shivering round the camp fire at four, have
now reached the goal of their desires; they are warm—very warm—
and the white man will do well to march at the head of the caravan,
otherwise he will find opportunities more numerous than agreeable
for studying the subject of “racial odours.” After two hours, or two
hours and a half, comes the first halt. The European shouts for his
camp-stool and sits watching the long string of loads coming up and
being lowered to the ground. A frugal breakfast of a couple of eggs, a
piece of cold meat, or a few bananas, here awaits the traveller, but
the carriers, who started without a meal, steadily fast on. It seems
incomprehensible that these men should be able to march for many
hours with a load of sixty or seventy pounds, while practising such
abstinence, but they are quite content to have it so. In the later hours
of the day, it is true, they begin to flag, their steps become slower and
shorter, and they lag more and more behind the personal “boys” who
have no heavy loads to carry. Yet when they reach camp at last, they
are as merry and cheerful as they were in the early morning. The
same noise—though now with quite different words from the throats
of the singers—overwhelms the European, who has long been seated
at the halting-place. My company seem to be obsessed by the
“Central-Magazin” at Dar es Salam, where they entered my service;
they are celebrating this spacious building in the closing song of their
day’s march.
CAMP AT MASASI
The duties of my followers—whether boys, askari, or porters—are

by no means over when they have reached camp. By the time they
come up, the leader of the expedition has looked round for a place to
pitch his tent, a matter which seems to me to require special gifts.
The fundamental principles to bear in mind are: that it should be
within reach of good drinking water and free from noxious insects,
such as ticks, mosquitoes, and jiggers. The second point, but one by
no means to be overlooked, is the position of the tent-pole with
regard to the course of the sun, and the next the shade of leafy trees,
if that is attainable. I find it simplest to draw the outline of the tent
on the sandy ground, after the spot has been carefully swept,
indicating the place where I want the door to be by a break in the
line. That is quite enough for my corporal in command. Scarcely have
the two unfortunates, whose shoulders are weighed down by my
heavy tent, come up panting and gasping for breath, when the loads
are unrolled, and in a twinkling every warrior has taken up his
position. “One, two, three!” and the two poles are in their places, and
the next moment I hear the blows of the mallet on the tent-pegs.
While this is going on, the two boys, Moritz and Kibwana, are
amusing themselves with my bed. This occupation seems to
represent for them the height of enjoyment, for it seems as if they
would never be done. Neither scolding nor threats can avail to hasten
their movements. It seems as if their usually slow brains had become
absolutely torpid. Mechanically they set up the bedstead;
mechanically they spread the cork mattress and the blankets over it;
in the same dull, apathetic way they finally set up the framework of
the mosquito-net. The soldiers have taken their departure long
before my two gentlemen condescend to carry the bed into the tent.
My carriers meanwhile have found all sorts of work to do. Water
has to be fetched for the whole caravan, and fires to be made, and the
sanitary requirements of the camp provided for; and noon is long
past by the time their turn comes and they can live their own life for
an hour or two. Even now they cannot be said to revel in luxury. This
southern part of the German territory is very poor in game, and in
any case I have no time for shooting, so that meat is almost an
unknown item in my people’s menu. Ugali, always ugali—stiff
porridge of millet, maize or manioc, boiled till it has almost a
vitreous consistency, and then shaped with the spoon used for
stirring into a kind of pudding—forms the staple of their meals day
after day.
INTERIOR OF A NATIVE HUT IN THE ROVUMA VALLEY
Here at Masasi the tables are turned; my men have a good time,
while I can scarcely get a minute to myself. My escort are quite
magnificently housed, they have moved into the baraza or council-
house to the left of my palatial quarters and fitted it up in the native
way. The negro has no love for a common apartment; he likes to
make a little nest apart for himself. This is quickly done: two or three
horizontal poles are placed as a scaffolding all round the projected
cabin, then a thick layer of long African grass is tied to them, and a
cosy place, cool by day and warm by night, is ready for each one. The
carriers, on the other hand, have built themselves huts in the open
space facing my abode, quite simple and neat, but, to my
astonishment, quite in the Masai style—neither circular hut nor
tembe. The circular hut I shall discuss in full later on, but in case
anyone should not know what a tembe is like, I will here say that the
best notion of it can be got by placing three or four railway carriages
at right angles to one another, so that they form a square or
parallelogram, with the doors inward. This tembe is found
throughout most of the northern and central part of German East
Africa, from Unyamwezi in the west to the coast on the east, and
from the Eyasi and Manyara basin in the north to Uhehe in the
south. The Masai hut, finally, can best be compared with a round-
topped trunk. Though the Masai, as everyone knows, usually stand
well over six feet, their huts, which (quite conformably with the
owners’ mode of life as cattle-breeders par excellence) are neatly and
fragrantly plastered with cowdung, are so low that even a person of
normal stature cannot stand upright in them. My Wanyamwezi,
however, never attempt to stand up in their huts; on the contrary,
they lie about lazily all day long on their heaps of straw.
My activities are all the more strenuous. The tropical day is short,
being only twelve hours from year’s end to year’s end, so that one has
to make the fullest possible use of it. At sunrise, which of course is at
six, everyone is on foot, breakfast is quickly despatched, and then the
day’s work begins. This beginning is curious enough. Everyone who
has commanded an African expedition must have experienced the
persistence of the natives in crediting him with medical skill and
knowledge, and every morning I find a long row of patients waiting
for me. Some of them are my own men, others inhabitants of Masasi
and its neighbourhood. One of my carriers has had a bad time. The
carrier’s load is, in East Africa, usually packed in the American
petroleum case. This is a light but strong wooden box measuring
about twenty-four inches in length by twelve in width and sixteen in
height, and originally intended to hold two tins of “kerosene.” The
tins have usually been divorced from the case, in order to continue a
useful and respected existence as utensils of all work in every Swahili
household; while the case without the tins is used as above stated.
One only of my cases remained true to its original destination, and
travelled with its full complement of oil on the shoulders of the
Mnyamwezi Kazi Ulaya.[14] The honest fellow strides ahead sturdily.
“It is hot,” he thinks. “I am beginning to perspire. Well, that is no
harm; the others are doing the same.... It is really very hot!” he
ejaculates after a while; “even my mafuta ya Ulaya, my European
oil, is beginning to smell.” The smell becomes stronger and the
carrier wetter as the day draws on, and when, at the end of the
march, he sets down his fragrant load, it is with a double feeling of
relief, for the load itself has become inexplicably lighter during the
last six hours. At last the truth dawns on him and his friends, and it
is a matter for thankfulness that none of them possess any matches,
for had one been struck close to Kazi Ulaya, the whole man would
have burst into a blaze, so soaked was he with Mr. Rockefeller’s
stock-in-trade.
Whether it is to be accounted for by a strong sense of discipline or
by an almost incredible apathy, the fact remains that this man did
not report himself on the first day when he discovered that the tins
were leaking, but calmly took up his burden next morning and
carried it without a murmur to the next stopping place. Though once
more actually swimming in kerosene, Kazi Ulaya’s peace of mind
would not even now have been disturbed but for the fact that
symptoms of eczema had appeared, which made him somewhat
uneasy. He therefore presented himself with the words a native
always uses when something is wrong with him and he asks the help
of the all-powerful white man—“Dawa, bwana” (“Medicine, sir”),
and pointed significantly, but with no sign of indignation, to his
condition. A thorough treatment with soap and water seemed
indicated in the first instance, to remove the incrustation of dirt
accumulated in seven days’ marching. It must be said, in justice to
the patient, that this state of things was exceptional and due to
scarcity of water, for Kazi Ulaya’s personal cleanliness was above the
average. I then dressed with lanoline, of which, fortunately, I had
brought a large tin with me. The patient is now gradually getting over
his trouble.
Another case gives a slight idea of the havoc wrought by the jigger.
One of the soldiers’ boys, an immensely tall Maaraba from the
country behind Sudi, comes up every morning to get dawa for a
badly, damaged great toe. Strangely enough, I have at present
neither corrosive sublimate nor iodoform in my medicine chest, the
only substitute being boric acid tabloids. I have to do the best I can
with these, but my patients have, whether they like it or not, got
accustomed to have my weak disinfectant applied at a somewhat
high temperature. In the case of such careless fellows as this
Maaraba, who has to thank his own lazy apathy for the loss of his
toe-nail (which has quite disappeared and is replaced by a large
ulcerated wound), the hot water is after all a well-deserved penalty.
He yells every time like a stuck pig, and swears by all his gods that
from henceforth he will look out for the funsa with the most
unceasing vigilance—for the strengthening of which laudable
resolutions his lord and master, thoroughly annoyed by the childish
behaviour of this giant, bestows on him a couple of vigorous but
kindly meant cuffs.
As to the health of the Masasi natives, I prefer to offer no opinion
for the present. The insight so far gained through my morning
consultations into the negligence or helplessness of the natives as
regards hygiene, only makes me more determined to study other
districts before pronouncing a judgment. I shall content myself with
saying here that the negro’s power of resisting the deleterious
influences of his treacherous continent is by no means as great as we,
amid the over-refined surroundings of our civilized life, usually
imagine. Infant mortality, in particular, seems to reach a height of
which we can form no idea.
Having seen my patients, the real day’s work begins, and I march
through the country in the character of Diogenes. On the first few
days, I crawled into the native huts armed merely with a box of
matches, which was very romantic, but did not answer my purpose. I
had never before been able to picture to myself what is meant by
Egyptian darkness, but now I know that the epithet is merely used on
the principle of pars pro toto, and that the thing belongs to the whole
continent, and is to be had of the very best quality here in the plain
west of the Makonde plateau. The native huts are entirely devoid of
windows, a feature which may seem to us unprogressive, but which is
in reality the outcome of long experience. The native wants to keep
his house cool, and can only do so by excluding the outside
temperature. For this reason he dislikes opening the front and back
doors of his home at the same time, and makes the thatch project
outward and downward far beyond the walls. My stable-lantern,
carried about the country in broad daylight by Moritz, is a great
amusement to the aborigines, and in truth our proceeding might well
seem eccentric to anyone ignorant of our object. In the darkness of a
hut-interior, however, they find their complete justification. First
comes a polite request from me, or from Mr. Knudsen, to the owner,
for permission to inspect his domain, which is granted with equal
politeness. This is followed by an eager search through the rooms
and compartments of which, to my surprise, the dwellings here are
composed. These are not elegant, such a notion being as yet wholly
foreign to the native consciousness; but they give unimpeachable
testimony to the inmates’ mode of life. In the centre, midway
between the two doors is the kitchen with the hearth and the most
indispensable household implements and stores. The hearth is
simplicity itself: three stones the size of a man’s head, or perhaps
only lumps of earth from an ant-heap, are placed at an angle of 120°
to each other. On these, surrounded by other pots, the great earthen
pot, with the inevitable ugali, rests over the smouldering fire. Lying
about among them are ladles, or spoons, and “spurtles” for stirring
the porridge. Over the fireplace, and well within reach of the smoke,
is a stage constructed out of five or six forked poles. On the cross-
sticks are laid heads of millet in close, uniform rows, and under
them, like the sausages in the smoke-room of a German farmhouse,
hang a great number of the largest and finest cobs of maize, by this
time covered with a shining layer of soot. If this does not protect
them from insects, nothing else will; for such is the final end and aim
of the whole process. In the temperate regions of Europe, science
may be concerned with preserving the seed-corn in a state capable of
germination till sowing-time; but here, in tropical Africa, with its all-
penetrating damp, its all-devouring insect and other destroyers, and,
finally, its want of suitable and permanent building material, this
saving of the seed is an art of practical utility. It will be one, and not
the least welcome, of my tasks, to study this art thoroughly in all its
details.
As to the economy of these natives, their struggle with the
recalcitrant nature of the country, and their care for the morrow, I
am waiting to express an opinion till I shall have gained fuller
experience. In the literature dealing with ethnology and national
economy, we have a long series of works devoted to the classification
of mankind according to the forms and stages of their economic life.
It is a matter of course that we occupy the highest stage; all authors
are agreed on one point, that we have taken out a lease of civilization
in all its departments. As to the arrangement of the other races and
nations, no two authors are agreed. The text-books swarm with
barbarous and half-barbarous peoples, with settled and nomadic,
hunter, shepherd, and fisher tribes, migratory and collecting tribes.
One group carries on its economic arts on a basis of tradition,
another on that of innate instinct, finally, we have even an animal
stage of economics. If all these classifications are thrown into a
common receptacle, the result is a dish with many ingredients, but
insipid as a whole. Its main constituent is a profound contempt for
those whom we may call the “nature-peoples.”[15] These books
produce the impression that the negro, for instance, lives direct from
hand to mouth, and in his divine carelessness takes no thought even
for to-day, much less for to-morrow morning.
The reality is quite otherwise, here and elsewhere, but here in an
especial degree. In Northern Germany, the modern intensive style of
farming is characterized by the barns irregularly distributed over the
fields, and in quite recent times by the corn-stacks, both of which,
since the introduction of the movable threshing-machine, have made
the old barn at the homestead well-nigh useless. Here the farming
differs only in degree, not in principle; here, too, miniature barns are
irregularly scattered over the shambas, or gardens; while other food-
stores which surprise us by their number and size are found close to
and in the homestead. If we examine the interior of the house with a
light, we find in all its compartments large earthen jars, hermetically
sealed with clay, containing ground-nuts, peas, beans, and the like,
and neatly-made bark cylinders, about a yard long, also covered with
clay and well caulked, for holding maize, millet and other kinds of
grain. All these receptacles, both outdoor and indoor, are placed to
protect them from insects, rodents and damp, on racks or platforms
of wood and bamboo, from fifteen inches to two feet high, plastered
with clay, and resting on stout, forked poles. The outdoor food-stores
are often of considerable dimensions. They resemble gigantic
mushrooms, with their thatched roofs projecting far beyond the
bamboo or straw structure, which is always plastered with mud
inside and out. Some have a door in their circumference after the
fashion of our cylindrical iron stoves; others have no opening
whatever, and if the owner wishes to take out the contents, he has to
tilt the roof on one side. For this purpose he has to ascend a ladder of
the most primitive construction—a couple of logs, no matter how
crooked, with slips of bamboo lashed across them a yard apart. I
cannot sketch these appliances without a smile, yet, in spite of their
primitive character, they show a certain gift of technical invention.
The keeping of pigeons is to us Europeans a very pleasing feature
in the village economy of these parts. Almost every homestead we
visit has one or more dovecotes, very different from ours, and yet
well suited to their purpose. The simplest form is a single bark
cylinder, made by stripping the bark whole from the section of a
moderately thick tree. The ends are fastened up with sticks or flat
stones, a hole is cut in the middle for letting the birds in and out, and

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Transportation biofuels: pathways for

Sustainable Approaches for Biofuels Production

Strategic Planning for the Sustainable Production of

Biofuels Production and Processing Technology 1st

Handbook of Biofuels Production Processes and

Recommended Practice for Corrosion Management of

Statistical Techniques for Transportation Engineering

Handbook of Algal Technologies and Phytochemicals:

Climate Change Photosynthesis and Advanced Biofuels The

Green Chemistry Series

Titles in the series:

30: Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) Based Blends, Composites and

ization and Applications

63: Flow Chemistry: Integrated Approaches for Practical Applications

How to obtain future titles on publication:

For further information please contact:

Han van Kasteren

Green Chemistry Series No. 65

Print ISBN: 978-1-78801-504-2

r Alwin Hoogendoorn and Han van Kasteren 2020

All rights reserved

The Royal Society of Chemistry is a charity, registered in England and Wales,

For further information see our web site at www.rsc.org

Preface to the 2nd Edition

Transportation Biofuels: Pathways for Production: 2nd Edition

Preface to the 1st Edition

Alwin Hoogendoorn and Han van Kasteren

Transportation Biofuels: Pathways for Production: 2nd Edition

Chapter 2 Biological Conversion of Syngas into Ethanol 3

Transportation Biofuels: Pathways for Production: 2nd Edition

2.6.4 Pressure Drop 25

2.9 Experimental Results 29

Chapter 3 Biological Conversion of Syngas into Methane 75

3.8 Financial Analysis 122

3.9 Discussion 126

Chapter 4 Enzymatic Biodiesel 132

4.6.10 Eﬀect of Temperature on the Activity

4.6.13 Conclusions on the Experimental Work

4.10 Glycerol-free Biodiesel Application as a

4.11.1 Basic Process Design 181

Chapter 5 Sustainability and Future Directions 192

Chapter 6 Concluding Remarks 203

Subject Index 207

About the Authors

Alwin Hoogendoorn is portfolio research manager at the Centre of Expertise

Transportation Biofuels: Pathways for Production: 2nd Edition

Transportation Biofuels: Pathways for Production: 2nd Edition

Transportation Biofuels: Pathways for Production: 2nd Edition

Biological Conversion of Syngas into Ethanol 13

Figure 2.5 The 2 main types of fluidized bed gasifiers.13

2.4.1.2 Fluidised Bed Gasification (BFB, CFB)

Operating temperature: 750–950 1C

Värnamö, Sweden (high pressure CFB)

2.4.1.3 Entrained Flow Gasification (EFG)

Operating temperature: 1200–1500 1C

This ascent, though barren of results in other respects, has

Masasi, end of July, 1906.

Every normal human being is a walking demonstration of the theory

READY FOR MARCHING (MASASI)

Oh! the beauty of these early mornings in the tropics! It is now

The duties of my followers—whether boys, askari, or porters—are

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