Isolation And Identification Of Bacteria Associated With Handsets (Cell

Phones)
 ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to determine microbial contamination of mobile

phones in Bells University of Technology (BUT), and identify the most important

microbial species associated with these phones in order to take the necessary

remedial measures.

The analysis of a total of 202 samples was done to identify fungal and

pathogenic bacteria isolates. Sterile swabs were firmly passed on the handset,

the buttons and the screens of mobile phones, then inoculated into media of

bacteria and fungi. Frequency distribution of isolates were calculated.

There were 737 isolated of the following bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus,

Staphylococcus epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Neisseria sicca,

Micrococcus luteus, Proteus mirabilis, Bacillus subtilis, and Enterobacter

aerogenes at the rate of 56.58, 13.57, 8.01, 7.73, 6.51, 3.66, 2.85 and 1.09%

respectively. There were fungal isolates as follows: Alternaria alternata,

Aspergillus niger, Cladosporium sp., Penicillium spp., Aspergillus flavus,

Aspergillus fumigatus, Rhizopus stolonifer, Aspergillus ochraceus at the rate of

29.07, 26.74, 20.93, 10.47, 6.98, 2.33, 2.33, 1.16%, respectively.

The study showed that all mobile phones under consideration were infected by

several microbes, most of which belonged to the natural flora of the human

body as well as airborne fungi and soil. This means that it is necessary to
sterilize hands after contact with a phone since it is a source of disease

transmission.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

COVER PAGE

TITLE PAGE

APPROVAL PAGE

DEDICATION

ACKNOWELDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1.6 HYPOTHESIS

1.7 APPLICATION OF THE STUDY

1.8 METHODOLOGY

1.9 PROJECT ORGANISATION

CHAPTER TWO

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 REVIEW OF THE STUDY

2.2 HISTORICAL AND DISCOVERY BACKGROUND OF MICROBES

2.3 CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE OF MICROORGANISMS

2.4 ECOLOGY OF MICROORGANISMS

2.5 APPLICATIONS OF MICROORGANISMS

2.6 THE IMPACT OF MICROBES ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN

ACTIVITIES

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 STUDY OF AREA

3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN

3.4 SAMPLING AND ISOLATION METHOD

3.5 CHARACTERIZATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF ISOLATES

3.6 BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULT

4.2 DISCUSSION
CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 CONCLUSION

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

REFERENCES
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

A mobile or cellular telephone which is also called handset is a long-range

portable electronic device for personal telecommunication. The vast majority of

mobile phones are hand-held. In less than 20 years, mobile phones have gone

from being rare and expensive pieces of equipment used primarily by the

business elite, to a common low-cost personal item. In many countries, mobile

phones outnumber landline telephones since most adults and many children now

own mobile phones.

Because of the achievements and benefits of the mobile phone, it is easy to

overlook its hazard to health; this is against the background that many users

may have no regard for personal hygiene, and the number of people who may

use the same phone. This constant handling of the phone by different users

exposes it to an array of microorganisms, and makes it a good carrier for

microbes, especially those associated with the skin resulting in the spread of

different microorganisms from user to user. Our research has shown that the

mobile phone could be a health hazard with tens of thousands of microbes

living on each square inch of the phone. Microbiologists say that the
combination of constant handling with the heat generated by the phones creates

a prime breeding ground for many microorganisms that are normally found on

the skin. Staphylococci, particularly S. epidermidis are members of the normal

flora of the human skin, respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts (Ekrakene et al,

2017). Nasal carriage of S. aureus occurs in 20-50% of human beings.

Staphylococci are also found regularly on clothes, bed linen, and other human

environments.[Melnick et al, 2014] Staphylococcus aureus, a common

bacterium found on the skin and in the noses of up to 25% of healthy people and

animals can cause illnesses from pimples and boils to pneumonia and

meningitis, and is a close relative of methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus

aureus (MRSA). The main reservoir of S. aureus is the hand from where it is

introduced into food during preparation (Hui et al, 2011). The hand serves as a

major vehicle of transmission of various microbes including the enteric species

(Brande et al, 2011) Proteus mirabilis is one of the most common Gram-

negative pathogens encountered in clinical specimens. It can cause a variety of

community - or hospital-acquired infections, including thoseof the urinary tract,

respiratory tract, wounds and burns, bacteraemia,neonatal meningoencephalitis,

empyema and osteomyelitis (Hara et al, 2010). After Escherichia coli, P.

mirabilis is the member of the Enterobacteriaceae most often isolated in

Nigerian clinical microbiology laboratories (Liu et al, 2012) Pseudomonas

aeruginosa is a metabolically versatile γ-Proteobacterium, which inhabits

terrestrial, aquatic, animal-, human-, and plant-host-associated environments

(Ramos, 2012).

Our study aimed at investigating bacterial contamination of the mobile phone to

identify the microbes regularly associated with mobile phones and their

pathogenicity. Suggestions for the improvement of handling are proposed.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Micro-organisms are found everywhere most especially in our constantly used

hand device such as - handset. It is true that because of the rampant usage and

its functions and advantages in our daily lives we forgot to considers the health

implication of handset. According to microbiologist (Liu et al, 2012), handset is

the major carrier of thousands of bacteria. The bacteria can spread from

person to person by direct contact, through contaminated objects (such as

buses seat, gym equipment, telephones, door knobs, television remote

controls, or elevator buttons), or, less often, by inhalation of infected droplets

dispersed by sneezing or coughing.

Carriers are people who have the bacteria but do not have any symptoms

caused by the bacteria. Carriers can move the bacteria from their nose to other

body parts with their hands, sometimes leading to infection. People who are

hospitalized or work in a hospital are more likely to be carriers.

This study was carried out to investigating bacterial contamination of the

mobile phone to identify the microbes regularly associated with mobile phones

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main aim of this study is carried out a bacterial contamination investigation

of the mobile phone. The objectives of the study is to

i. To identify the microbes regularly associated with mobile phones

ii. To determine the microbial load of cell phone.

iii. To understand the effect of microorganism in our lives

iv. To take the necessary remedial measures.

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION

This research worked in based on the isolation and identification of

bacteria associated with cellphone. This study covers the total bacteria

count, isolation and identification of bacteria. However, it is limited to

very few samples and bacterial studies only, because of limited

resources.

1.5 HYPOTHESIS

HO: Microbial organisms are not observed on cellphone and are not

responsible for many infection among students.

Hg = Microorganisms are observed on cellphone and they are responsible

for many infection among students

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study will be useful to all users of cellphone by creating awareness of the

presence of microorganisms in handsets. The outcome of this research will

guide users on how to avoid contacting micro-organism mostly in phones.

1.7 APPLICATION OF THE STUDY

This study provides practical guidance which aimed at supporting all health

professionals, teachers, pupils, and all users of handsets.

1.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In the course of carrying this study, numerous sources were used which most

of them are by visiting libraries, consulting journal and news papers and online

research which Google was the major source that was used.

1.9 PROJECT ORGANISATION

The work is organized as follows: chapter one discuses the introductory part of

the work, chapter two presents the literature review of the study, chapter

three describes the methods applied, chapter four discusses the results of the
work, chapter five summarizes the research outcomes and the

recommendations.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 REVIEW OF THE STUDY

Hands play a major role in the transmission of infection in healthcare

institutions in industrial settings such as food industries and also in all

community and domestic setting (Aiello et al, 2012). Hands and instrument

used by workers serve as vectors for the transmission of micro-organisms. A

mobile or cellular telephone is a long-range, portable electronic device for

personal telecommunication. The vast majority of mobile phones are hand-held.

In less than 20 years, mobile phones have gone from being rare and expensive

pieces of equipment used primarily by the business elite, to a common low-cost

personal item. In many countries, mobile phones outnumber landline telephones

since most adults and many children now own mobile phones. At present, Asia

has the fastest growth rate of cellular phone subscribers in the world. The use of

mobile phones by teachers and lectures may serve as a potential vehicle for the

spread of pathogenic microorganisms [Brady et al, 2016]. Because of the

achievements and benefits of the mobile phones, it is easy to overlook its hazard

to health; this is against the background that many users may have to regard for

personal hygiene, and the number of people who may use the same phone. This

constant handling of the phone by different users exposes it to an array of

microorganisms, and makes it good carrier for microbes living on each square

inch of the phone [Goldblatt et al, 2017].

Microbiologist say that the combination of constant handling with the heat

generated by the phones create a prime breeding ground for many

microorganisms that are normally found on the skin. A well-practiced infection

control plan that encompasses hand hygiene, environmental decontamination,

and surveillance contact isolates is effective for prevention of such pathogenic

organisms (Neely et al, 2012). Colonization by potentially pathogenic

organisms on various objects such as duster, marker, pen, chalk, pagers,

computer, keyboards and mobile phones has been reported and these materials

are implicated in transmission of pathogens[6] .In recent times there has been an

increase in the use of mobile phones by academic and non-academic staff of

educational institutions. Innovations in mobile phones have led to better

strategic life with good communication [Goldblatt et al, 2017] .Therefore the

use of mobile phones in the course of a working day has made mobile phones

potential agents of microbial transmission [Soto et al, 2016] . The increase use
of mobile phones is seen as responsible for rise in community infection rates

reported by ecological findings [Brady et al, 2016].

Hand washing may not usually be performed often enough and many people

may use personal mobile phone in the course of a working day, the potential act

of mobile phones as a source of microbial transmission is considerable

[Suganya et al, 2012]. This work was carried out to investigate the bacterial

density from mobile phones of volunteered technologists to examine the

potential role of phones in vehicular transmission of pathogenic bacteria.

2.2 OVERVIEW OF MICROORGANISM

A microorganism, or microbe, is a microscopic organism, which may exist in its

single-celled form or in a colony of cells.

The possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected from ancient

times, such as in Jain scriptures from 6th century BC India and the 1st century

BC book On Agriculture by Marcus Terentius Varro. Microbiology, the scientific

study of microorganisms, began with their observation under the microscope

in the 1670s by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1850s, Louis Pasteur found

that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of

spontaneous generation. In the 1880s, Robert Koch discovered that

microorganisms caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera and anthrax.

Microorganisms include all unicellular organisms and so are extremely diverse.

Of the three domains of life identified by Carl Woese, all of the Archaea and

Bacteria are microorganisms. These were previously grouped together in the

two domain system as Prokaryotes, the other being the eukaryotes. The third

domain Eukaryota includes all multicellular organisms and many unicellular

protists and protozoans. Some protists are related to animals and some to

green plants. Many of the multicellular organisms are microscopic, namely

micro-animals, some fungi and some algae, but these are not discussed here.

They live in almost every habitat from the poles to the equator, deserts,

geysers, rocks and the deep sea. Some are adapted to extremes such as very

hot or very cold conditions, others to high pressure and a few such as

Deinococcus radiodurans to high radiation environments. Microorganisms also

make up the microbiota found in and on all multicellular organisms. A

December 2017 report stated that 3.45-billion-year-old Australian rocks once

contained microorganisms, the earliest direct evidence of life on Earth.( WHO,

2012)

Microbes are important in human culture and health in many ways, serving to

ferment foods, treat sewage, produce fuel, enzymes and other bioactive

compounds. They are essential tools in biology as model organisms and have

been put to use in biological warfare and bioterrorism. They are a vital
component of fertile soils. In the human body microorganisms make up the

human microbiota including the essential gut flora. They are the pathogens

responsible for many infectious diseases and as such are the target of hygiene

measures.

2.3 HISTORICAL AND DISCOVERY BACKGROUND OF MICROBES

Ancient precursors

The possible existence of microorganisms was discussed for many centuries

before their discovery in the 17th century. By the fifth century BC, the Jains of

present-day India postulated the existence of tiny organisms called nigodas.

These nigodas are said to be born in clusters; they live everywhere, including

the bodies of plants, animals, and people; and their life lasts only for fraction

of a second. According to the Jain leader Mahavira, the humans destroy these

nigodas on a massive scale, when they eat, breathe, sit and move. Many

modern Jains assert that Mahavira's teachings presage the existence of

microorganisms as discovered by modern science.

The earliest known idea to indicate the possibility of diseases spreading by yet

unseen organisms was that of the Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro in a

1st-century BC book titled On Agriculture in which he called the unseen

creatures animalcules, and warns against locating a homestead near a swamp.

Early modern

Akshamsaddin (Turkish scientist) mentioned the microbe in his work Maddat

ul-Hayat (The Material of Life) about two centuries prior to Antonie Van

Leeuwenhoek's discovery through experimentation:

It is incorrect to assume that diseases appear one by one in humans. Disease

infects by spreading from one person to another. This infection occurs through

seeds that are so small they cannot be seen but are alive.

In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by

transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect

contact, or even without contact over long distances. [Girolamo Fracastoro,

2011]

Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek is considered to be the father of microbiology. He

was the first in 1673 to discover, observe, describe, study and conduct

scientific experiments with microoorganisms, using simple single-lensed

microscopes of his own design. Robert Hooke (2012), a contemporary of

Leeuwenhoek, also used microscopy to observe microbial life in the form of

the fruiting bodies of moulds. In his 1665 book Micrographia, he made

drawings of studies, and he coined the term cell .

19th century

Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) exposed boiled broths to the air, in vessels that

contained a filter to prevent particles from passing through to the growth

medium, and also in vessels without a filter, but with air allowed in via a

curved tube so dust particles would settle and not come in contact with the

broth. By boiling the broth beforehand, Pasteur ensured that no

microorganisms survived within the broths at the beginning of his experiment.

Nothing grew in the broths in the course of Pasteur's experiment. This meant

that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as

spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. Thus,

Pasteur refuted the theory of spontaneous generation and supported the germ

theory of disease.

In 1876, Robert Koch (1843–1910) established that microorganisms can cause

disease. He found that the blood of cattle which were infected with anthrax

always had large numbers of Bacillus anthracis. Koch found that he could

transmit anthrax from one animal to another by taking a small sample of blood

from the infected animal and injecting it into a healthy one, and this caused

the healthy animal to become sick. He also found that he could grow the

bacteria in a nutrient broth, then inject it into a healthy animal, and cause

illness. Based on these experiments, he devised criteria for establishing a

causal link between a microorganism and a disease and these are now known

as Koch's postulates.[18] Although these postulates cannot be applied in all

cases, they do retain historical importance to the development of scientific

thought and are still being used today.

The discovery of microorganisms such as Euglena that did not fit into either the

animal or plant kingdoms, since they were photosynthetic like plants, but

motile like animals, led to the naming of a third kingdom in the 1860s. In 1860

John Hogg called this the Protoctista, and in 1866 Ernst Haeckel named it the

Protista. [Younes, 2011]

The work of Pasteur and Koch did not accurately reflect the true diversity of

the microbial world because of their exclusive focus on microorganisms having

direct medical relevance. It was not until the work of Martinus Beijerinck and

Sergei Winogradsky late in the 19th century that the true breadth of

microbiology was revealed. Beijerinck made two major contributions to

microbiology: the discovery of viruses and the development of enrichment

culture techniques. While his work on the Tobacco Mosaic Virus established

the basic principles of virology, it was his development of enrichment culturing

that had the most immediate impact on microbiology by allowing for the

cultivation of a wide range of microbes with wildly different physiologies.

Winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to

thereby reveal the essential role played by microorganisms in geochemical

processes. He was responsible for the first isolation and description of both

nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. French-Canadian microbiologist Felix

d'Herelle co-discovered bacteriophages and was one of the earliest applied

microbiologists. [Younes, 2011]

2.4 CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE OF MICROORGANISMS

Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth. Bacteria and archaea

are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also

microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-

animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore

not considered as microorganisms, although a subfield of microbiology is

virology, the study of viruses.[Steel, 2010]

Evolution

Single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth,

approximately 3–4 billion years ago. Further evolution was slow,[Younes, 2011]

and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, (much of the history of

life on Earth), all organisms were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi

have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, which shows that

the morphology of microorganisms has changed little since the Triassic period.
The newly discovered biological role played by nickel, however — especially

that brought about by volcanic eruptions from the Siberian Traps — may have

accelerated the evolution of methanogens towards the end of the Permian–

Triassic extinction event.

Microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most

microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are also able to freely

exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction, even

between widely divergent species. This horizontal gene transfer, coupled with

a high mutation rate and other means of transformation, allows

microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to survive in new

environments and respond to environmental stresses. This rapid evolution is

important in medicine, as it has led to the development of multidrug resistant

pathogenic bacteria, superbugs, that are resistant to antibiotics.[19]

A possible transitional form of microorganism between a prokaryote and a

eukaryote was discovered in 2012 by Japanese scientists. Parakaryon

myojinensis is a unique microorganism larger than a typical prokaryote, but

with nuclear material enclosed in a membrane as in a eukaryote, and the

presence of endosymbionts. This is seen to be the first plausible evolutionary

form of microorganism, showing a stage of development from the prokaryote

to the eukaryote.
Archaea

Archaea are prokaryotic unicellular organisms, and form the first domain of

life, in Carl Woese's three-domain system. A prokaryote is defined as having no

cell nucleus or other membrane bound-organelle. Archaea share this defining

feature with the bacteria with which they were once grouped. In 1990 the

microbiologist Woese proposed the three-domain system that divided living

things into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes, and thereby split the prokaryote

domain.

Archaea differ from bacteria in both their genetics and biochemistry. For

example, while bacterial cell membranes are made from phosphoglycerides

with ester bonds, archaean membranes are made of ether lipids. Archaea were

originally described as extremophiles living in extreme environments, such as

hot springs, but have since been found in all types of habitats. Only now are

scientists beginning to realize how common archaea are in the environment,

with Crenarchaeota being the most common form of life in the ocean,

dominating ecosystems below 150 m in depth. These organisms are also

common in soil and play a vital role in ammonia oxidation.

The combined domains of archaea and bacteria make up the most diverse and

abundant group of organisms on Earth and inhabit practically all environments

where the temperature is below +140 °C. They are found in water, soil, air, as

the microbiome of an organism, hot springs and even deep beneath the Earth's

crust in rocks. The number of prokaryotes is estimated to be around five

million trillion trillion, or 5 × 1030, accounting for at least half the biomass on

Earth.

The biodiversity of the prokaryotes is unknown, but may be very large. A May

2016 estimate, based on laws of scaling from known numbers of species

against the size of organism, gives an estimate of perhaps 1 trillion species on

the planet, of which most would be microorganisms. Currently, only one-

thousandth of one percent of that total have been described.

Bacteria

Bacteria like archaea are prokaryotic – unicellular, and having no cell nucleus

or other membrane-bound organelle. Bacteria are microscopic, with a few

extremely rare exceptions, such as Thiomargarita namibiensis. Bacteria

function and reproduce as individual cells, but they can often aggregate in

multicellular colonies. Some species such as myxobacteria can aggregate into

complex swarming structures, operating as multicellular groups as part of their

life cycle,[53] or form clusters in bacterial colonies such as E.coli.

Their genome is usually a circular bacterial chromosome – a single loop of

DNA, although they can also harbor small pieces of DNA called plasmids. These

plasmids can be transferred between cells through bacterial conjugation.

Bacteria have an enclosing cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to

their cells. They reproduce by binary fission or sometimes by budding, but do

not undergo meiotic sexual reproduction. However, many bacterial species can

transfer DNA between individual cells by a horizontal gene transfer process

referred to as natural transformation. Some species form extraordinarily

resilient spores, but for bacteria this is a mechanism for survival, not

reproduction. Under optimal conditions bacteria can grow extremely rapidly

and their numbers can double as quickly as every 20 minutes.

Eukaryotes

Most living things that are visible to the naked eye in their adult form are

eukaryotes, including humans. However, a large number of eukaryotes are also

microorganisms. Unlike bacteria and archaea, eukaryotes contain organelles

such as the cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in their cells.

The nucleus is an organelle that houses the DNA that makes up a cell's

genome. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) itself is arranged in complex

chromosomes.[Steel, 2010] Mitochondria are organelles vital in metabolism as

they are the site of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. They
evolved from symbiotic bacteria and retain a remnant genome.[ Steel, 2010]

Like bacteria, plant cells have cell walls, and contain organelles such as

chloroplasts in addition to the organelles in other eukaryotes. Chloroplasts

produce energy from light by photosynthesis, and were also originally

symbiotic bacteria.

Unicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell throughout their life cycle. This

qualification is significant since most multicellular eukaryotes consist of a single

cell called a zygote only at the beginning of their life cycles. Microbial

eukaryotes can be either haploid or diploid, and some organisms have multiple

cell nuclei.

Unicellular eukaryotes usually reproduce asexually by mitosis under favorable

conditions. However, under stressful conditions such as nutrient limitations

and other conditions associated with DNA damage, they tend to reproduce

sexually by meiosis and syngamy.

Protists

Of eukaryotic groups, the protists are most commonly unicellular and

microscopic. This is a highly diverse group of organisms that are not easy to

classify. Several algae species are multicellular protists, and slime molds have

unique life cycles that involve switching between unicellular, colonial, and
multicellular forms.[Steel, 2010] The number of species of protists is unknown

since only a small proportion has been identified. Protist diversity is high in

oceans, deep sea-vents, river sediment and an acidic river, suggesting that

many eukaryotic microbial communities may yet be discovered.

Fungi

The fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker's yeast

(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe).

Some fungi, such as the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, can undergo

phenotypic switching and grow as single cells in some environments, and

filamentous hyphae in others.

Plants

The green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include

many microscopic organisms. Although some green algae are classified as

protists, others such as charophyta are classified with embryophyte plants,

which are the most familiar group of land plants. Algae can grow as single cells,

or in long chains of cells. The green algae include unicellular and colonial

flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various

colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. In the Charales, which are the algae
most closely related to higher plants, cells differentiate into several distinct

tissues within the organism. There are about 6000 species of green algae.

2.5 ECOLOGY OF MICROORGANISMS

Microorganisms are found in almost every habitat present in nature, including

hostile environments such as the North and South poles, deserts, geysers, and

rocks. They also include all the marine microorganisms of the oceans and deep

sea. Some types of microorganisms have adapted to extreme environments

and sustained colonies; these organisms are known as extremophiles.

Extremophiles have been isolated from rocks as much as 7 kilometres below

the Earth's surface, and it has been suggested that the amount of organisms

living below the Earth's surface is comparable with the amount of life on or

above the surface. Extremophiles have been known to survive for a prolonged

time in a vacuum, and can be highly resistant to radiation, which may even

allow them to survive in space. Many types of microorganisms have intimate

symbiotic relationships with other larger organisms; some of which are

mutually beneficial (mutualism), while others can be damaging to the host

organism (parasitism). If microorganisms can cause disease in a host they are

known as pathogens and then they are sometimes referred to as microbes.

Microorganisms play critical roles in Earth's biogeochemical cycles as they are

responsible for decomposition and nitrogen fixation.

Bacteria use regulatory networks that allow them to adapt to almost every

environmental niche on earth. A network of interactions among diverse types

of molecules including DNA, RNA, proteins and metabolites, is utilised by the

bacteria to achieve regulation of gene expression. In bacteria, the principal

function of regulatory networks is to control the response to environmental

changes, for example nutritional status and environmental stress. A complex

organization of networks permits the microorganism to coordinate and

integrate multiple environmental signals.

Extremophiles

Extremophiles are microorganisms that have adapted so that they can survive

and even thrive in extreme environments that are normally fatal to most life-

forms. Thermophiles and hyperthermophiles thrive in high temperatures.

Psychrophiles thrive in extremely low temperatures. – Temperatures as high as

130 °C (266 °F), as low as −17 °C (1 °F) Halophiles such as Halobacterium

salinarum (an archaean) thrive in high salt conditions, up to saturation.

Alkaliphiles thrive in an alkaline pH of about 8.5–11. Acidophiles can thrive in a

pH of 2.0 or less. Piezophiles thrive at very high pressures: up to 1,000–2,000

atm, down to 0 atm as in a vacuum of space. A few extremophiles such as

Deinococcus radiodurans are radioresistant, resisting radiation exposure of up

to 5k Gy. Extremophiles are significant in different ways. They extend

terrestrial life into much of the Earth's hydrosphere, crust and atmosphere,

their specific evolutionary adaptation mechanisms to their extreme

environment can be exploited in biotechnology, and their very existence under

such extreme conditions increases the potential for extraterrestrial life.

In soil

The nitrogen cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.

This is achieved by a number of diazotrophs. One way this can occur is in the

root nodules of legumes that contain symbiotic bacteria of the genera

Rhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and

Azorhizobium.

The roots of plants create a narrow region known as the rhizosphere that

supports a large number of microorganisms known as the root microbiome.

2.6 APPLICATIONS OF MICROORGANISMS

Microorganisms are useful in producing foods, treating waste water, creating

biofuels and a wide range of chemicals and enzymes. They are invaluable in

research as model organisms. They have been weaponised and sometimes

used in warfare and bioterrorism. They are vital to agriculture through their

roles in maintaining soil fertility and in decomposing organic matter.

Food production

Microorganisms are used in a fermentation process to make yoghurt, cheese,

curd, kefir, ayran, xynogala, and other types of food. Fermentation cultures

provide flavor and aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms. They are used to

leaven bread, and to convert sugars to alcohol in wine and beer.

Microorganisms are used in brewing, wine making, baking, pickling and other

food-making processes.

Water treatment

Energy

Microorganisms are used in fermentation to produce ethanol, and in biogas

reactors to produce methane. Scientists are researching the use of algae to

produce liquid fuels, and bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and

urban waste into usable fuels.

Chemicals, enzymes

Microorganisms are used to produce many commercial and industrial

chemicals, enzymes and other bioactive molecules. Organic acids produced on

a large industrial scale by microbial fermentation include acetic acid produced

by acetic acid bacteria such as Acetobacter aceti, butyric acid made by the
bacterium Clostridium butyricum, lactic acid made by Lactobacillus and other

lactic acid bacteria, and citric acid produced by the mould fungus Aspergillus

niger.

Microorganisms are used to prepare bioactive molecules such as Streptokinase

from the bacterium Streptococcus, Cyclosporin A from the ascomycete fungus

Tolypocladium inflatum, and statins produced by the yeast Monascus

purpureus.

Science

Microorganisms are essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics,

and molecular biology. The yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and

Schizosaccharomyces pombe are important model organisms in science, since

they are simple eukaryotes that can be grown rapidly in large numbers and are

easily manipulated. They are particularly valuable in genetics, genomics and

proteomics. Microorganisms can be harnessed for uses such as creating

steroids and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also considering using

microorganisms for living fuel cells, and as a solution for pollution.

Warfare
In the Middle Ages, as an early example of biological warfare, diseased corpses

were thrown into castles during sieges using catapults or other siege engines.

Individuals near the corpses were exposed to the pathogen and were likely to

spread that pathogen to others.

In modern times, bioterrorism has included the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror

attackand the 1993 release of anthrax by Aum Shinrikyo in Tokyo.

Soil

Microbes can make nutrients and minerals in the soil available to plants,

produce hormones that spur growth, stimulate the plant immune system and

trigger or dampen stress responses. In general a more diverse set of soil

microbes results in fewer plant diseases and higher yield.

Human health

Human gut flora

Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger

organisms. For example, microbial symbiosis plays a crucial role in the immune

system. The microorganisms that make up the gut flora in the gastrointestinal

tract contribute to gut immunity, synthesize vitamins such as folic acid and

biotin, and ferment complex indigestible carbohydrates. Some microorganisms

that are seen to be beneficial to health are termed probiotics and are available

as dietary supplements, or food additives.

Disease

Microorganisms are the causative agents (pathogens) in many infectious

diseases. The organisms involved include pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases

such as plague, tuberculosis and anthrax; protozoan parasites, causing diseases

such as malaria, sleeping sickness, dysentery and toxoplasmosis; and also fungi

causing diseases such as ringworm, candidiasis or histoplasmosis. However,

other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by

pathogenic viruses, which are not usually classified as living organisms and are

not, therefore, microorganisms by the strict definition. No clear examples of

archaean pathogens are known, although a relationship has been proposed

between the presence of some archaean methanogens and human periodontal

disease.

Hygiene

Hygiene is a set of practices to avoid infection or food spoilage by eliminating

microorganisms from the surroundings. As microorganisms, in particular

bacteria, are found virtually everywhere, harmful microorganisms may be

reduced to acceptable levels rather than actually eliminated. In food

preparation, microorganisms are reduced by preservation methods such as

cooking, cleanliness of utensils, short storage periods, or by low temperatures.

If complete sterility is needed, as with surgical equipment, an autoclave is used

to kill microorganisms with heat and pressure.

2.7 THE IMPACT OF MICROBES ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN

ACTIVITIES

Associations with Animals and Plants

Microbes invariably enter into beneficial, sometimes essential, associations

with all higher forms of organisms, including insects, invertebrates, fish,

animals and plants. For example, bacteria and other microbes in the intestines

of animals and insects digest nutrients and produce vitamins and growth

factors. In the plant world, leguminous plants (peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, etc.)

live in intimate associations with bacteria that extract nitrogen from the

atmosphere and supply it to the plant for growth.

Microbes in the rumen (forestomach) of cows, sheep and other ruminant

animals are responsible for the initial digestion of nutrients (primarily

cellulose), and they provide not only a source of carbon for their host, but also

a source of protein and vitamins.

The microbes that normally live in associations with humans on the various

surfaces of the body (called the normal flora), such as Lactobacillus and

Bifidobacterium, are known to protect their hosts from infections, and

otherwise promote nutrition and health.

Production of Foods and Fuels

In the home and in industry, microbes are used in the production of fermented

foods. Yeasts are used in the manufacture of beer and wine and for the

leavening of breads, while lactic acid bacteria are used to make yogurt, cheese,

sour cream, buttermilk and other fermented milk products. Vinegars are

produced by bacterial acetic acid fermentation. Other fermented foods include

soy sauce, sauerkraut, dill pickles, olives, salami, cocoa and black teas. Yeast

are also involved in fermentations to convert corn and other vegetable

carbohydrates into ethanol to make beer, wine or gasohol, but bacteria are the

agents of most other food fermentations.

Medical, Pharmaceutical and Biotechnological Applications

In human and veterinary medicine, for the treatment and prevention of

infectious diseases, microbes are a source of antibiotics and vaccines.

Antibiotics are substances produced by microorganisms that kill or inhibit

other microbes which are used in the treatment of infectious disease.

Antibiotics are produced in nature by molds such as Penicillium and bacteria

such as Streptomyces and Bacillus.

Vaccines are substances derived from microorganisms used to immunize

against disease. The microbes that are the cause of infectious disease are

usually the ultimate source of vaccines. Thus, a version of the diphtheria toxin

(called toxoid) is used to immunize against diphtheria, and parts of Bordetella

pertussis cells are used to vaccinate against pertussis (whooping cough). The

use of vaccines such as smallpox, polio, diphtheria, tetanus and whooping

cough has led to virtual elimination of these diseases in regions of the world

where the vaccines have been deployed.

 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The main concern of this chapter is to discuss in detail the methodology used

by the researcher for the study. The chapter is discussed under the following

sub-titles: study area, research design, population sampling and isolation

characterization and identification of isolates, biochemical reactions.

3.2 STUDY OF AREA

This study was carried out in Bells University. Bells University of Technology

(BUT), also known as Bellstech, is the first private university of technology

established in Nigeria. It is located in Ogun State of Nigeria.

3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN

The cross sectional survey design was utilized in the present study. The design

is considered one of the best available designs to the researcher who is

interested in collecting original data for purposes of describing a population

that is fairly large. Ali (1996) in support of this also stated that, a cross-

sectional survey research design describes conditions or situations of what is

being studied as they exist in their natural settings. Following from the above

the design is therefore, suitable for use in present study.

3.4 SAMPLING AND ISOLATION METHOD

The samples were collected from the mobile phones of 202 devices during a

three-week period from November 20, 2021 and December 11, 2021 in

microbiology laboratory of BELL university with sterile cotton swab sticks.

Each swab was immediately streaked on three plates of Nutrient agar and

Sabouraud Dextrose agar, and Glucose yeast agar. The plates were incubated at

34-37°C for 48 hours and observed for growth and colonial description of the

isolates.

3.5 CHARACTERIZATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF ISOLATES

Morphological description of colonies, gram stain, mobility tests and

identification keys were used for bacterial identification.

3.6 BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS

Physiological and biochemical reactions of each bacterial isolate were verified

using the standard kits API identification system (Biomerieux, Marcy L’etoil,

France) for the identification of both gram positive and negative bacteria.
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Microbiological standards in hygiene are necessary for a healthy life. It is not

uncommon, however, to observe practices that deviate from normal standards of

hygiene in both the developing and the developed world. This investigation

confirms such a deviation, as a variety of microbes were found on mobile

phones.

The research findings indicate that Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus

epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Neisseria sicca, Micrococcus luteus,

Proteus mirabilis, Bacillus subtilis and Enterobacter aerogenes are the main

bacterial isolates frequently associated with mobile phones as shown in Table 1.

These organisms may probably have found their way into the phone through the

skin and from hand to hand. This is because the isolated bacteria are a subset of

the normal microbiota of the skin as advanced by earlier researchers [Roth,

2018]. Frequent handling by many users with different hygiene profiles

producing regular skin contact with the phones may have resulted in the

frequency and the degree of population of the isolates. This has many health
implications. Staphylococcus aureus is known to cause illnesses ranging from

pimples and boils to pneumonia and meningitis, a scenario supported by the

high population of colony isolates.

Table 1

Bacteria isolated from mobile pohones in BELL

The presence of the gram-negative rod, Enterobacter aerogenes, a member of

the coliforms, indicates the possibility of the presence of faecal contamination

on the mobile phone. Gram-negative sepsis is most commonly caused by E coli,

Klebsiella spp, Enterobacter spp and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Bone et al,

2012). It has also been advanced that the endotoxin or lipopolysaccharide (LPS)

produced by members of this group has been implicated as a primary initiator of

the pathogenesis of septic shock. Bacillus subtilis with a 100% frequency of

occurrence has been identified as an important organism in food spoilage (Jay et

al, 2010). This undoubtedly contributes a great deal to food spoilage and the

contamination of food if food is prepared or eaten with infected hands.

Alternaria alternata (29.07%), Aspergillus Niger (26.74%), Cladosporium sp

(20.93%), Penicillium spp. (10.47%), Aspergillus flavus (6.98%), Rhizopus

stolonifer and Aspergillus fumigates (2.33%) were isolated and tabulated in

Table 2 based on mycelia, colour and spores. These isolates can significantly

influence food spoilage and food infection through the production of toxins.

Table 2

Fungi isolated from mobile phones in BELL

The overall implication of these results is that mobile phones which make

communication easy and accessible also form good carriers of pathogenic

agents of disease transmission. If care is not taken, they could be vehicles for

the transmission of biological weapons.

Karabay et al (2017) reported that mobile phones may get contaminated with

such bacteria as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella

pneumoniae, which cause hospital infections, and may serve as a vehicle for the
spread of nosocomial pathogens. Users of mobile phones are found everywhere:

in the market, the home, hospitals, and schools. They could therefore, be the

cause of the spread of the infection in the community. Our results indicate that

isolates were associated with various strata of society.

Karabay et al (2017) found that most of the organisms isolated were skin flora.

However, 16.7% of the samples were positive for pathogens known to be

associated with nosocomial transmission, such as Enterococci spp, S. aureus

and K. pneumonia. Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci (VRE) and Methicillin-

Resistant S. aureus (MRSA) were not isolated. Other investigators reported that

telephones, intercoms, dictaphones and bedpan flusher handles may be

contaminated with potentially pathogenic bacteria Jeske et al [2017] also

reported that bacterial contamination of anesthetists’ hands by personal mobile

phones occurred, (38/40 physicians, 4/40 with human pathogen bacteria) in the

operating theatre. The use of mobile phones by health personnels in the

Intensive Care Unit, burn wards and operative rooms may have more serious

hygiene consequences, because unlike fixed phones, mobile phones are often

used close to patients. Intensive Care Unit patients and burn patients are very

vulnerable to infectious diseases, so the risk of transmission of organisms

associated with nosocomial infections is increased.

 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 CONCLUSION

Since the restriction of the use of mobile phones by health worker is not

effective for the prevention of the spread of nosocomial infections it is

necessary to develop effective preventive strategies that will include

environmental decontamination, hand hygiene, surveillance, and contact

isolation for the prevention of these nosocomial infections. Simple cleaning of

computers and telephones with 70% isopropyl alcohol may decrease the

bacterial load.

Control measures are quite simple and can include engineering modifications,

such as the use of hands-free mobile phones, surfaces that are easy to clean and

disinfect, hand washing, and the wearing of gloves by the appropriate personnel.

In general, resident infection control staff of the medical facility can advise on

the routine control practices for medical devices. Observance of these simple

control procedures can decrease morbidity and mortality and thereby reduce

medical care costs for hospitals and other care providers.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

Today, mobile phones are important equipment for physicians and other health

workers. Since restrictions on the use of mobile phones by health personnel is

not a practical solution, many researchers suggest that adherence to such

infection control precautions as hand hygiene should be strict. In addition,

people should be informed that these devices may be a source for transmission

of hospital-acquired infections to and from the community. Further studies for

the possible means of decontamination of mobile phones, such as the use of

alcohol and/or disinfection tissues, should be found and employed in hospitals

that have large bed capacities and Intensive Care Units. The hospital

environment plays a critical role in the transmission of organisms associated

with nosocomial infections. Micro-organisms can be transferred from person to

person or from inanimate objects (such as stethoscopes, bronchoscopes, pagers,

ballpoint pens, hospital charts, computer keyboards, mobile phones and fixed

telephones) to hands and vice versa.

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