Chapter_4 Dam and dam types

• Dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious

material built across a river to create a reservoir on
its upstream side for impounding water for various
purposes

• Dam is constructed for the following purpose

• Hydropower Generation
• Irrigation Purpose
• Domestic and industrial water supply
• Flood Controlling
• Ground Water Recharge
• Water Diversion
• Fish Farming and Recreation facilities
 Different parts and terminology's of dam
Crest: it is the top parts of the dam structure that use to
providing a roadway or walkway over the dam.
Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the
roadway or walkway on the crest.
Heel: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-
bed at upstream side.
Toe: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed
at downstream side.
Spillway: It is the structure near to the top of structure for
the passage of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.
It use to control the overflow of reservoir water when the
reservoir is full. Its size and location with respect to the dam
is determined by the size and kind of dam, local topography,
geology and History of stream flow at the site of the dam.
Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam wall
to which the left & right end of dam are fixed to.
Sluice way: Opening in the structure near the base,
provided to clear the silt accumulation in the reservoir.
Gallery: it is the gently sloping tunnel like passage at
transverse or longitudinal within the dam with drain on
floor for seepage water. These are generally provided for
having space for drilling grout holes and drainage holes.
These may also be used to accommodate the
instrumentation for studying the performance of dam.
Free board: The space between the highest level of water in
the reservoir and the top of the structure.
Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below
which the water will not be withdrawn.
Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change
the direction of water to bypass the dam construction site.
The hydraulic structures are built while the river flows
through the diversion tunnel.
 Classification of dam
Dams can be classified in number of ways
 Based on the construction material dams can has
three major classes.
1. Concrete dams
2. Embankment Dams
3. Composite dams
 Based on theirs structural features (design) concrete
dams can be classified as:
 Gravity Dams: It is a concrete or masonry dam that
has Trapezoidal cross section and resists the forces
acting on it by its own weight (gravitational force). As
the entire load is transmitted on the small area of
foundation, such dams must be constructed on a very
competent foundation rock.
Gravity dam
 Advantages Gravity dams
 It is quite strong, stable and durable
 It is quite suitable across moderately wide valleys and
gorges having steep slopes where earth dams is not
suitable
 It can be constructed to very great heights, if good rock
foundations are available.
 It is well adapted for use as an overflow spillway section.
 The maintenance cost of a gravity dam is very low.
 The gravity dam does not fail suddenly. There is enough
warning, so the valuable property and human life can be
saved to some extent.
 The sedimentation in the reservoir on the upstream of a
gravity dam can be somewhat reduced by operation of
deep-set sluice way
 Disadvantages of Gravity dams
 Gravity dams of great height can be constructed only on
sound rock foundations.
 The initial cost of a gravity dam is usually high
 It require more concrete than arc and butters dams
 It usually take a longer time in construction
 It require more skilled labor than that in earth dams.
Arch Dams
• It is a curved concrete dam, convex upstream and resists
the forces acting on it by arch action.
• Relative to other concrete dams it need Less material
(cheaper)
• It is suitable in narrow valley or V-shaped valley, having
very steep slopes and with strong abutment rocks.
• It transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to
the abutments by arch action.
Arch Dam
Advantages of Arc Dam
• It requires less concrete as compared to a gravity dam
• It is more suited to narrow, V-shaped valley, having very
steep slopes.
• Uplift pressure is not an important factor in its design
• It can be constructed on a relatively less strong foundation

Disadvantages of Arc Dam

• It requires good quality rock in the abutments side
• It requires sophisticated formwork, more skilled labor and
better concrete.
• It cannot be constructed in very cold climates because of
spalling due to alternate freezing and thawing.
• The speed of construction is relatively slow
Buttress Dams
• It can call as hollow gravity dam because it require only
35-50% of the concrete used by solid gravity dam.
• It is supported by equally spaced triangular masonry or
reinforced concrete walls what we call buttresses.
• This triangular concrete walls (buttress) is use to transmit
the water pressure from the deck slab to the foundation.
Butters Dam
Butters Dam
Advantages of Buttress Dam
• It require less concrete than gravity dams
• The uplift pressure is not a major factor in its design
• Power house and water treatment plants, etc. can be housed
between buttresses.
• The vertical component of the water pressure on deck
prevents the dam against overturning and sliding failures.
Disadvantages of Butters Dam
• Buttress dams require higher formwork, reinforcement and
more skilled labor. Consequently, the overall cost of
construction may be more than that of a gravity dam.
• It cannot be constructed in very cold climates because of
spalling of concrete.
• Because the upstream deck slab is thin, its deterioration
may have very serious effect on the stability.
2. Embankment Dams
• It is a non-rigid dam which resists the forces acting on it by
its shear strength and to some extent also by its own
weight (gravity)
• They are constructed where the foundation material are
weak to support the rigid dams or where the suitable
competent rocks are at greater depth.
• They are relatively smaller in height and broad at the base
• They are not suitable for narrow gorges with steep slopes
• It have high resistance to deferential settlement, so it can
be constructed on a great variety of foundations ranging
from weak unconsolidated stream or glacial deposits to
high-strength rocks.
• Cannot be designed as an overflow section. A spillway has
to be located away from the dam.
• Embankment dams have high resistance to damage from
earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during
construction such as poor compaction can lead the
Liquefaction problems.
• To minimize the Liquefaction potential of embankment
dam keeping material from being saturated and providing
adequate compaction during construction time
• The embankment dams have impervious zone which can
be constructed from concrete, clay material and asphalt.
• Based on size of construction material it can be:
Earth Fill Dams
Rock Fill Dams
 Earth Fill Dams
• They are mainly built with clay, sand, gravel and rocks
• It can be zoned or homogeneous structure
• A zoned dam composed of several zones that increase in
permeability from the core towards the outer slopes (shells
or shoulders)
• They have the waterproof layer called core that prevents
water from seeping through the structure.
• To prevent internal erosion of the core clay layer due to
seepage forces we use a filter layer which designed to
prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles.
• If the earth dam is built on a pervious foundation, a
concrete cut-off wall or a steel sheet pile line is also
provided in the continuation of the core section.
 Rock fill dams
 It is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size
 Its an impervious membrane which is usually made of
cement concrete or asphaltic concrete is placed on the
upstream side to reduce the seepage through the dam
 It require foundation stronger than those for earth dams
 If we use the earth core as impervious layer it is necessary
to provide adequate filters between the earth core and
the rock fill on the upstream and downstream sides of the
core so that the soil particles are not carried by water and
piping does not occur
 It require heavy machines for transporting, dumping and
compacting rocks
 Advantages Embankment Dams
 It is usually cheaper than gravity dams if suitable
construction material is available near the site.
 It can be constructed on almost all types of foundations
 It can be constructed in a relatively short period of time
 The skilled labor is not required in construction
 It has more earthquake-resistant than others dams.
 Disadvantages of Embankment Dams
 It is not suitable in narrow gorges with steep slopes
 It cannot be designed as an overflow section. A spillway
has to be located away from the dam.
 Its maintenance cost is quite high. It requires constant
supervision.
 Sluice way cannot be provided in it to remove slit.
 It can be fails suddenly without any sign
3. Composite dams
It is the type of dam which have both concrete and
embankment sections within it .
It is design for the sites that are geologically unsuitable for a
specific type of dam
For example, a broad valley that has strong rocks on one
side and weaker ones on the other can be suitable for
gravity and embankment composite dam
 Based on theirs height dam can be classified as
 Large Dam: If the height of the dam is bigger than 100m
 Medium Dam: If the height of the dam is between 50m and
100m
 Small Dam: If the height of the dam is lower than 50m
 Based on theirs functions dam can be classified as
 Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during
the rainy season for later use in dry season. It can use for a
water supply, irrigation and fish farming, for hydroelectric
power generation, for a flood control project. It is the most
common type of dams.
 Diversion dams: It is constructed to diverting water of the
river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). It is usually of
low height and has a small storage reservoir on its
upstream.
 Detention dams: It is constructed for flood control.
It retards the flow in the river on its downstream
during floods by storing some flood water. Thus the
effect of sudden floods is reduced to some extent
and the water retained in the reservoir is later
released gradually at a controlled rate according to
the carrying capacity of the channel downstream of
the detention dam.
 Debris dams: It is constructed to retain debris such as
sand, gravel, and drift wood flowing in the river with
water. The water after passing over a debris dam is
relatively clear.
• Coffer dams: It is a temporary barrier constructed to
exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. It
is made commonly of wood, concrete or steel sheet and
used to allow construction on the foundation of
permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures.

• Based on Hydraulic Design

 Overflow dams: It is designed to act as an overflow
structure. The surplus water in the reservoir is permitted
to pass over the crest which acts as a spillway. Most of the
time it is common for the concrete dams
 Non-overflow dams: there is no overflow water on the
crest the surplus water in the reservoir is permitted to
pass over the spillway. It is common for the Embankment
dams, however it is possible for any type of dams
 Some roles of engineering geologist on dam construction
 Dam site investigations such as: Location of dam axis,
Location of diversion tunnel, Location of spillway,
Location of powerhouse and etc
 Field Surveying and Laboratory testing of the construction
materials
 Slope stability investigations for the abutment side and
dam reservoir rim.
 Earthquake hazard evaluation & risk analysis
 Investigating the environmental impact of the dam
 Investigating the Leakage possibilities from reservoir area
and from dam site
 Investigating erosion susceptibility of the catchment areas
and degree of sedimentation or siltation at the reservoir
areas
 Common factors controlling the dam site selectıon
• Generally the selection of dam type for a given site can be
determined both by engineering suitability of the site and
economic consideration.
• The type and size of dam constructed depends on the need
for and the amount of water available, Topography and
valley shape, foundation condition of the site, the
availability of suitable construction materials at the site,
accessibility of the site, Good Site for reservoir, Spillway
position, Earthquakes magnitude, Climatic conditions,
overall cost of the project, Diversion problems and ect.
• There are different geological conditions those
control the type and size of dam will be constructed
at a given site
The morphological configuration of the valley can
control the type of dams
Geological features such as fault, cavernous, buried
channels, rock slide and others can affect the dam
foundation
For the gravity and buttress dams the rocks at the
valley floor must has high quality while for the arch
dams the rocks at the valley side must has good
quality. Because the arch dams transmit the water
pressure to the valley side.
• Different orientation of sedimentary rocks layers
can control the seepage and stability condition of
dams
• E.g folded layer problem such as syncline and
anticline geological structures
• The existence of shale at the dam foundation can
affect the stability of dam, because it has low
bearing capacity and its flackness condition can
cause the sliding of dam foundation along its bed
 Geological condition those control the
site of Embankment dams
The existence of adequate construction material at
the reasonable distance
The permeability condition of foundation material
the availability of suitable site for outlets and
spillways
The slope angle at the abutment side
 Dam Reservoirs
• A reservoir is a large, artificial lake created by constructing
a dam across a river
• It use to regulate the water supplies during rainy and dry
season for different purposes

Basic Terms of the reservoirs

• Full reservoir level (FRL): it is the highest water level to
which the water surface will rise during normal operating
conditions. It is the level at which the effective storage of
the reservoir is computed. It is equal to the crest level of
the Spillway
• Minimum pool level: it is the lowest level up to which the
water is withdrawn from the reservoir under ordinary
conditions which is corresponds to the elevation of the
lowest outlet of the dam
• The storage below the minimum pool level is not useful for
hydroelectric power and is called the dead storage
• Useful storage: it is the volume of water stored between
the full reservoir level (FRL) and the minimum pool level
• Surcharge storage: it is the volume of water stored above
the full reservoir level upto the maximum water level. It is
an uncontrolled storage which exists only when the river is
in flood and the flood water is passing over the spillway.
Yield from a reservoir: it is the volume of water which can
be withdrawn from a reservoir in a specified period of
time
• Safe yield: it is the maximum quantity of water which can
be supplied from a reservoir in a specified period of time
during a critical dry year. To determine it the history of
natural flow of the river for a number of years was
recorded
• Secondary yield: It is the quantity of water which is
available during the period of high flow in the rivers which
is more than the safe yield
• Average yield: It is the arithmetic average of the firm yield
and the secondary yield over a long period of time
Geological problems associated to the dams reservoirs
 Characteristics of the catchment area
 Storage Capacity which can be controlled by topography of
the site and dam height
 The water tightness condition of the reservoir basin to
control the seepage and leakage. E.g due to the existence
of solution channels, fault zones, buried channels,
permeable strata and etc.
 The slope stability condition of the valley (reservoirs rims),
which can reduce the volume of the reservoir or produce a
tidal wave that may over-top the dam and cause flooding
downstream.
• E.g in 1964 due to the reservoir slope instability of Vajoit
dam 2000 people were killed.
 In addition to the water tightness condition of the
reservoir material the total head of groundwater in the
reservoir area can control the leakage condition of the
dam reservoir. That mean if the total head of ground water
exceed the reservoir level there is no leakage of reservoir
water.
In general when we select the dam site we
must consider the following things
• The competent of foundation rock to withstand the
static and dynamic forces
• The slope stability of reservoir rim and abutment side
• the resistance of foundation rock to weathering,
sliding and differential settlement
• The water tightness of foundation and reservoir rim
• The topography and strength of abutment rock
• The suitability and availability of construction material
• The location of spillway, diversion tunnel and
powerhouse
Envıronmental impacts of dam construction
 It can cause river pollution, air pollution and Noise
pollution
 It cause loss of land, Loss of archeological and histrorical
places, Loss of mineral deposits, Loss of special geological
formations
 It can cause reservoir induced seismicity (earthquake)
 It can cause flooding problems
Geological problems on dam site
• Fissile rocks such as shales, slates and phyllites those,
interbedded ashes in a sequence of basalt lava flows cause
the sliding of concrete dams.
• The highly permeable rock masses can cause excessive
seepage beneath a dam may damage the foundation
• Seepage rates can be lowered by using cut-off beneath the
dam which can lengthens the flow path and reducing the
hydraulic gradient
• young igneous rocks with highly permeability via their
open joints, pipes, cavities and contact zone
• weak beds of ash and tuff may occur between the basalt
flows that cause problems of differential settlement or
sliding
• Fresh metamorphosed rocks such as quartzite and
hornfels and gneiss are suitable dam foundation
• Joints and shear zones are responsible to permit leakage
through foundations and abutments.
• Foliated regional metamorphic rocks
• Sandstones frequently interbedded with shale
• karstic areas
• Fault zones