BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE 111 – HYDRAULICS
2nd Semester, S.Y 2023 – 2024

MODULE 2 (PART 1)
FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENT THROUGH ORIFICES, TUBES, VENTURI METER, AND WEIRS

There are numerous numbers of devices used to measure the flow of fluids. In any of these devices,
Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem is greatly utilized, and additional knowledge of the characteristics and
coefficients of each device is important. In the absence of reliable values and coefficients, a device
should be calibrated for the expected operating conditions.’

2.1 COEFFICIENTS AFFECTING VELOCITY AND DISCHARGE THROUGH ORIFICE

Coefficient of Discharge, C or 𝐂𝒅

The coefficient of discharge is the ratio of the actual discharge through the device to the ideal or
theoretical discharge which occur without losses. This may be expressed as:

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑸
𝑪 𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒅 = =
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑸𝑻

The actual discharge may be accomplished by series of observation, usually by measuring the total
amount of fluid passing through the device for a known period. The theoretical value can be
accomplished using Bernoulli’s Theorem neglecting losses.

Coefficient of Velocity, 𝐂𝒗

The coefficient of velocity is the ratio of the actual mean velocity to the ideal or theoretical velocity
which would occur without any losses.

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒗 2.2 ORIFICE

𝑪𝒗 = =
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒗𝑻
An orifice is any opening having a closed perimeter made in a wall or partition used for measuring
Coefficient of Contraction, 𝐂𝒄 flow of fluids.

The coefficient of contraction is the ratio of the actual area of the contracted section of the stream According to shape, orifice may be circular, square, or rectangular in cross-section. The circular
or jet to the area of the opening through which the fluid flows. sharp-crested orifice is most widely used because of the simplicity of its design and construction.

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝒋𝒆𝒕 𝒂 2.2.1 Head Loss in the orifice

𝑪𝒄 = =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨
𝑉1 = 0
Relationship between the Three Coefficients 𝑉1 2 = 𝑉 2 − 2𝑔𝐻
0 = 𝑉 2 − 2𝑔𝐻
𝑪 = 𝑪𝒄 𝒙 𝑪𝒗 𝑽𝟐
𝑯=
𝟐𝒈
The coefficient of discharge varies with Reynolds Number. It is not constant for a given device. Table
6-1 gives the coefficients for vertical sharp edged orifice.

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 𝐻𝐿 = ℎ − 𝐻 b. Calculate the coefficient of contraction.
𝑽𝟐 c. Compute the coefficient of velocity.
𝑯𝑳 = 𝒉 −
𝟐𝒈
2. An orifice having an area of 0.008 m² is attached to a vertical side of a cylindrical tank
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ having a diam. of 4.5 m. The weight of the water discharged in 1 min. and 40 sec. is 22563
𝑉 2 = 𝐶𝑣 2 2𝑔ℎ N. under a constant head of 1.2m. The jet strikes a point 1.95m. horizontally from the vena
𝑽𝟐 contracta and 1.00 m. vertically below the orifice.
𝒉= a. Compute the coefficient of velocity.
𝟐𝒈𝑪𝒗 𝟐
b. Compute the coefficient of discharge.
c. Compute the coefficient of contraction.
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝐻𝐿 = −
2𝑔𝐶𝑣 2 2𝑔 3. An orifice 150 mm in diameter, having a coeff. of contraction of 0.65 discharges oil (sp.gr. =
𝑽𝟐 𝟏 0.82) under a head of 7.50 m. The average actual velocity of the jet is 11.70 m/s.
𝑯𝑳 = ( − 𝟏)
𝟐𝒈 𝑪𝒗 𝟐 a. Compute the coefficient of velocity.
b. Compute the head loss of the orifice.
2.2.2 Orifice with Constant Head c. Compute the diameter of the jet at the vena contracta.

Note: When the area of tank is more than 16 times the area of orifice neglects the velocity of water in b. Submerged Orifice
the tank
Energy equation between 1 and 2 neglecting head lost:
a. Flow under atmospheric pressure 𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 𝛾𝑤
Energy equation between 1 and 2 neglecting head lost: 𝑉2 2

𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2 0 + 0 + ℎ1 =
2𝑔
+ 0 + ℎ2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 𝑽𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈(𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 )
2
𝑉2 ℎ = ℎ1 − ℎ2
0+0+ℎ = +0+0
2𝑔 𝑉2 = √2ℎ𝑔
𝑽𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉 (theoretical velocity) 𝑸 = 𝑪𝑨√𝟐𝒈𝒉
𝑽 = 𝑪𝒗 𝑽𝟐 (actual velocity)
𝑽 = 𝑪𝒗 √𝟐𝒈𝒉 Note: If there is a pressure on top of the liquid surface, convert it into equivalent height of liquid that is
presented in the container.
Discharge:
𝑄 = 𝑎𝑉 Example Problems:
𝑎
Since, 𝐶𝑐 = 𝐴 (coefficient of contraction)
𝑎 = 𝐴𝐶𝑐 4. Two closed compartments, A and B are connected by an orifice having a diam. of 150 mm
𝑄 = 𝐴𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣√2ℎ𝑔 at its side. At compartment A, it contains water at a depth of 3.50 m. above the orifice and
When, 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑐 (coefficient of discharge) a pressure on top of it equal to 50 kPa. On the other compartment, it contains water at a
𝑸 = 𝑪𝑨√𝟐𝒈𝒉 depth of 2m. above the orifice and a pressure of 15 kPa on top of the water surface. If
C=0.90 and Cv=0.95.
Let: a. Compute the discharge through the orifice.
A = area of orifice b. Compute the head loss.
a = area of jet at vena contracta c. Compute the power loss in watts.
𝐶𝑣 = coefficient of velocity
𝐶𝑐 = coefficient of contraction c. Orifice at the end of a pipe (considering velocity of approach)

Example Problems: Energy equation between 1 and 2 neglecting head lost:

𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
1. An 80mm dia. orifice discharges 0.03 m³/s of liquid under a head of 3.0 m. The diameter of 2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 𝛾𝑤
the jet at the vena contracta is found by calipering to be 66.50 mm. 𝑉1 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ
a. Calculate the coefficient of discharge. 𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝑄2 = 𝐶𝐴2 𝑉2

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑪𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐 ℎ1
2𝐴𝑠 ℎ1⁄2
𝜋𝐷 2 𝑡=⌊ ⌋
𝐴1 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔 ℎ
4
𝜋𝑑 2 2
𝐴2 = 𝟐𝑨𝒔 (√𝒉𝟏 − √𝒉𝟐 )
4
𝒕=
𝑪𝑨√𝟐𝒈
Example Problems:
𝐴𝑠 = cross sectional area of water inside the tank
5. A nozzle with a 50 mm diameter tip is attached at the end of a 2000 mm horizontal pipeline.
C = coefficient of discharge
The coefficients of velocity and contraction are respectively 0.98 and 0.91. A pressure gage
A = area of orifice
attached at the base of the nozzle and located 2.20 m. above its centerline reads 225 kPa.
ℎ1 = initial height of liquid in the tank
a. Determine the flow of water in m³/s.
ℎ2 = final height of liquid in the tank
b. Compute the velocity at the jet.
c. Compute the power in the jet.
Example Problems:
d. Orifice inside a pipe
1. A tank circular in cross section is 12 m. high. It takes 8.5 minutes to empty it thru a hole at the
bottom when the tank is full of water at the start.
Energy equation between 1 and 2 neglecting head lost:
a. How long will it take for the water level to drop the upper 3m.
𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 b. How long will it take for the water to drop from 12 m to 4 m.
2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 c. If the diameter of the tank is 2.5 m. and C=0.60, compute the diameter of the hole at
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 the bottom.
𝑄2 = 𝐶𝐴2 𝑉2
𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑪𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝜋𝐷 2
𝐴1 =
4
b. Time to empty the container using average discharge method:
𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴2 = 4
2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝑡=
Example Problems: 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔
2𝐴𝑠 (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )(√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 )
6. Coefficient of discharge at the orifice in the pipe is 0.65. Specific gravity of oil is 0.84. 𝑡=
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔(√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 )
a. What is the change in pressure heads between 1 and 2 in terms of oil. 𝟐𝑨𝒔 (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 )
b. What is the velocity of oil at point 2. 𝒕=
c. What is the discharge of oil in the pipe. 𝑪𝑨√𝟐𝒈(√𝒉𝟏 + √𝒉𝟐 )
𝟐
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
7. An orifice at the side of the tank is located 1 meter above the bottom of the tank which is 𝒕=
𝑨𝒗𝒆. 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
resting on the ground. The jet of water strikes a distance of 2.80 m. horizontally away from
the orifice with Cv=0.99. The height of the tank is 4m. and it is filled with water 2m. depth and
Example Problems:
on top of it is another liquid having a depth of 1 meter.
a. Determine the velocity of the jet.
2. The head in a vessel with vertical sides and a height of 4 m at the instant of operating an
b. Determine the equivalent constant head of water that causes flow out of the tank.
orifice was 3 m. and at closing had decreased to 1.5 m.
c. Determine the specific gravity of the liquid.
a. Determine the constant head under which at the same time the orifice would
discharge the same volume of water.
2.2.3 Orifice with Falling Head
b. Determine the time to discharge from a head of 3 m. as it decreased to 1.5 m. If the
diameter of the vessel is 2.2 m. and diameter of orifice is 50 mm diameter. Assume C =
a. Time to remove water from 𝒉𝟏 to 𝒉𝟐 for cylindrical tank:
0.62.
ℎ1 c. Determine the time to empty the container.
𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑡=∫
ℎ2 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
ℎ1
𝐴𝑠 ℎ−1⁄2 𝑑ℎ
𝑡=∫
ℎ2 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 Example Problems:
c. Time to empty the container with liquids having different specific gravities:
4. A right circular cone 4 m. in diameter and 4 m. high is super imposed with a right circular
cylinder having diameter of 4 m. and height of 4 m. on top of it. There is an orifice at the
vertex of the right circular cone having an area of 1000 sq.cm. and C=0.62. The tank is
initially full of water.
a. Find the time to remove one half of its contents through the orifice.
b. Find the time to empty the cylindrical tank on top of the right circular cone through the
orifice.
c. Find the time to empty the whole tank through the orifice.

e. Time for the water level to be of the same level.

4(3)
ℎ1 = 4 + = 10
2 𝟐𝑨𝑩√𝒉
ℎ2 = 10 − 4 = 6 𝒕=
(𝑨 + 𝑩)𝑪𝑨𝒃 √𝟐𝒈
2𝐴𝑠 (√10 − √6)
𝑡1 =
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔 𝐴𝑏 = area of orifice
2𝐴𝑠 (√4 − √0) A = cross sectional area of tank A
𝑡2 =
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔 B = cross sectional area of tank B
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒚 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐 ℎ = ℎ1 − ℎ2 = difference in water level

Example Problems:

3. A cylindrical tank 4m. in diameter and 10 m. high contains 6 m. of oil (sp.gr. = 0.84) and 4 m. f. Time for the water surface to be h=1m. apart after its initial position between the two tanks A
of water. An orifice 120 mm diameter is located at the bottom with Cc=0.65 and Cv=0.95. and B:
a. Compute the rate of flow on the orifice in liters/sec.
b. Compute the time to remove water only on the tank. Use average discharged method:
c. Compute the time to drain all the liquids. ℎ1 + ℎ2 + 1 = 4
ℎ1 + ℎ2 = 3
Vol. out = Vol. in
10ℎ1 = 40ℎ2
ℎ1 = 4ℎ2
4ℎ2 + ℎ2 = 3
d. Time to empty the container with composite sections:
ℎ2 = 0.60
ℎ1 = 4(0.60)
For the Cylindrical portion
ℎ1 = 2.4
2𝐴𝑠 (√10 − √4) Vol. of 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 10(2.4)
𝑡1 =
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔 Vol. of 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 24 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚.
𝜋(3)² 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔(√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
4 2
𝐶𝐴√2𝑔(√4 − √1)
For the Conical portion 𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑉
𝑥 1.5 𝑡=
= 𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒
ℎ 4
1.5
𝑥= ℎ Example Problems:
4
4
𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑡2 = ∫ 5. A prismatic vessel has two compartments A and B communicating by an orifice 0.35 m.
0 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ square with C=0.60. The horizontal cross-section of A is 10 sq.m. and that of B is 40 sq.m. At a
𝑡 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 certain time, the water in A is 6m. above the center of the orifice and in B is 3 m.

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 a. Compute the discharge from A to B.
b. Find the time in which the water surfaces in the two tanks will reach the same
elevation.
c. How soon thereafter will the water surface be 1 meter apart.

References:
1. Besavilla, V.I. (1996) Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics, 3rd edition.,VIB Publisher
2. Gillesania, Diego Inocencio T.Fluid mechanics and hydraulics, c2003, Leyte
3. Evett, Jack B. & Liu, Cheng. (1989) Schaum’s 2500 Solved Problems in Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Inc.
4. Daugherty, R.L., Franzini, J.B., Finnemore, E.J. (2002) Fluid Mechanics with Engineering
Applications,SI Metric Edition, USA
5. King, H. W., Wisler, C. O., and Woodburn, J. G. Hydraulics, Fifth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA