Short notes of ENLIGHTMENT AND BIRTH OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

ENLIGHTMENT AND BIRTH OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

The Enlightenment had multiple meanings, including:

1. A bundle of ideas challenging traditional views rooted in Christianity.

2. An intellectual movement.
3. A network of intellectuals and institutional centers.
4. A publishing industry and its audience.
5. An intellectual fashion.
6. A belief system or world-view.
7. A historical and geographical phenomenon.
The Enlightenment created a new framework of ideas challenging traditional views, mainly
supported by the Church. Enlightenment thinkers aimed to promote knowledge and
understanding in various domains, rejecting the idea of strict disciplinary boundaries. Despite
advocating for universal knowledge, the Enlightenment paradoxically contributed to the
specialization of disciplines.
The Enlightenment involved key figures such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, and Rousseau,
whose writings influenced the era. The movement emphasized the application of reason and
science to challenge traditional authority, particularly that of the clergy. The emergence of
specialized disciplines occurred gradually, with the Enlightenment contributing to the rise of a
secular intelligentsia challenging the influence of the Church.
The social, historical, and geographical context of the Enlightenment spanned the first quarter
to the last quarter of the eighteenth century in Europe, centered in France. The term
"Enlightenment" is commonly associated with a period of intellectual awakening and progress,
although its boundaries are challenging to define precisely.
The Encyclopedia, a collaborative publishing effort led by Diderot and d'Alembert, exemplified
the Enlightenment's ideals. It aimed to organize and disseminate knowledge universally,
promoting reason, science, and progress. The Enlightenment also saw the emergence of
learned societies, like the Académie française and the Royal Society, fostering the study of arts
and sciences.
The philosophes' critical writings challenged traditional views and religious authority,
emphasizing the importance of empirical science and reason. The Enlightenment questioned
established social structures and sought to redefine knowledge outside the religious sphere.
The movement touched on various aspects of society, advocating for progress and reason.
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SOCIAL ORDERS AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE
The Enlightenment thinkers, known as philosophes, held secular and rationalist views but were
not as disruptive to the traditional social structure as it may seem. Many of them came from
privileged backgrounds, belonging to the noble or gentry classes. They were part of the
cultured elite, and their ideas were primarily circulated within this social group. The
philosophes were critical of religious authority and traditional knowledge but were not
explicitly challenging the existing social hierarchy.

The majority of Enlightenment figures were born into higher social classes, such as the nobility
or gentry, and their works were mainly read by others in similar positions. Only in the late
1700s did a new group of writers emerge, catering to a broader audience and popularizing
Enlightenment ideas. This new group targeted the discontented lower middle classes who
found little support in the traditional social structure.

The eighteenth-century society was characterized by a hierarchical structure based on land

ownership. The dominant orders included the landed nobility, traditional professionals, gentry-
farmers, and emerging middle-class individuals involved in trade and manufacture. The vast
majority of the population were peasants or smallholders.

The philosophes did not explicitly challenge the traditional social orders, and their ideas were
more focused on critiquing religious authority. They did not advocate for a radical restructuring
of society but instead promoted progress and reason within the existing framework. The
Enlightenment did not initially address the lower social classes, and its revolutionary
implications were not fully recognized by ruling elites.

Despite the attempts of secular and religious authorities to control the spread of Enlightenment
ideas, the philosophes believed that their goal was to influence men of influence and gradually
change the prevailing mindset. They saw their movement as a revolution in thinking rather than
a call for radical societal change.

WOMEN AND ENLIGHTENMENT: THE SALON

During the Enlightenment, the promotion and advancement of its principles were primarily led
by a male intellectual elite. While some powerful women, like Catherine the Great of Russia,
supported the movement, the public face of the Enlightenment was dominated by male figures.
Women were often seen as silent partners to more famous male thinkers or as hosts of salons
where intellectuals gathered.
Short notes of ENLIGHTMENT AND BIRTH OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
The salon, a social gathering, originated in seventeenth-century Paris, initiated by the Marquise
de Rambouillet. It provided a space for talented women to engage with men on an intellectual
level. However, the salon had mixed effects on women's rights. Some salons, like Mme de
Rambouillet's, were led by women who prioritized their intellectual roles over romantic
relationships. Yet, many salons became settings for relationships between men and intellectual
women, contributing to a perception that intellectual interactions between genders were not
purely platonic.
In summary, while the Enlightenment had support from a few influential women, it was
predominantly championed by a male intellectual elite. The institution of salons, meant to
empower women intellectually, had conflicting effects on women's rights due to the dual
nature of relationships within these social gatherings.
ENLIGHTENMENT AS THE PURSUIT OF MODERNITY
In the mid-eighteenth century, key Enlightenment thinkers in France and Scotland shaped a
modern concern for viewing humans as social beings. Despite diverse views among the
philosophes, four main areas distinguished their thought:

1. **Anti-clericalism:** The philosophes opposed the authority of the Church, especially the
Catholic Church. They rejected religious persecution and, while some denied God's existence,
many believed in a God revealed through reason rather than traditional means.

2. **Emphasis on empirical, materialist knowledge:** Influenced by the Scientific Revolution,

the philosophes valued scientific methods. They believed in progress through science,
technology, and medicine, considering scientists and inventors as agents of societal
improvement.

3. **Advocacy for social and constitutional reform:** French philosophes critiqued absolutism
and admired the British constitution for its established liberties. They sought political and
constitutional changes as part of their vision for a better society.

4. **Development of 'moral sciences':** Rooted in the Scientific Revolution, the philosophes

laid the foundation for sociology and other social sciences. These "moral sciences" focused on
understanding human nature to emancipate society from superstition, ignorance, and feudal
social structures.

The Enlightenment thinkers, aiming to reshape moral philosophy into a science of man,
considered human nature pivotal. They adopted an empirical approach, influenced by
philosopher John Locke, asserting that human knowledge and emotions stem from experience.
Short notes of ENLIGHTMENT AND BIRTH OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
This Enlightenment-inspired social science laid the groundwork for professionalized disciplines
in the early nineteenth century.

ENLIGHTENMENT, SCIENCE AND PROGRESS

In the Enlightenment era, science was highly regarded as a symbol of enlightened reason, seen
as a driving force for societal progress. The foundation of social science was closely linked to
the Enlightenment's concept of progress, envisioning the application of reason and empirical
knowledge to create institutions that would enhance human well-being. Science, with its
potential to enhance control over nature, agriculture, and health, played a crucial role for
eighteenth-century intellectuals.
The achievements of science, particularly Newton's work, inspired the belief that scientific
methods could be extended to society. There was a conviction that science could shape future
social values, chosen rationally to achieve predetermined goals. Voltaire, a prominent figure of
the Enlightenment, contributed to the popularization of scientific ideas in European thought.
Influenced by his exposure to English empiricism, Bacon's empirical methods, Newton's
scientific insights, and British religious tolerance, Voltaire integrated these concepts into his
influential work, "Lettres Philosophiques" (Philosophical Letters) in 1732.
In this era, Europeans experienced a newfound sense of power over nature and their lives,
replacing the fear of unchanging traditions with a fear of stagnation. The Enlightenment
fostered a spirit of innovation, and the pursuit of critical intelligence seemed to offer solutions
to the longstanding challenges of epidemics, famines, and war. The balance of power in the
struggle between humanity and nature appeared to shift in favor of human progress.

THE COMMUNICATION OF ENLIGHTENMENT:

In the previous section, I highlighted how the early social sciences were influenced by the
Enlightenment thinkers' fascination with the natural sciences and their application in various
fields like medicine, agriculture, and industry. The philosophes viewed science as a powerful ally
in their quest to combat religious intolerance and political injustice. Beyond just a set of ideas,
the Enlightenment contributed to the emergence of a new secular intelligentsia, reshaping the
role of intellectuals in society and introducing modern forms of communication.
The Enlightenment brought about significant cultural and social changes in the creation and
dissemination of ideas. It fostered the conditions for applying reason to practical affairs, giving
rise to modern institutions such as scientific academies, learned journals, and conferences. This
intellectual movement also established a modern audience for social, political, philosophical,
and scientific ideas, creating an environment where a class of intellectuals could thrive.
In France, a surge in the publication of journals, filled with diverse content ranging from
literature and news to art and science, marked this era. The most radical ideas found their way
into journals published outside France due to censorship. Despite strict supervision, books and
Short notes of ENLIGHTMENT AND BIRTH OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
journals challenging the government, morals, or religion managed to circulate. The late 18th
century witnessed a rapid increase in book and journal publishing, with newspapers becoming
more accessible.
However, access to this wealth of printed material was limited by high costs and the need for
cultural education to understand and engage in intellectual debates. Subscription libraries and
reading rooms emerged to facilitate access for those with limited resources. Literary societies
and academies also played a crucial role in providing platforms for intellectual exchange, essay
competitions, public lectures, and cultural events.
The intellectual culture was largely dominated by nobles, clerics, and the professional
bourgeoisie, mainly residents of towns less influenced by commerce or manufacturing. The
emerging middle classes, particularly merchants and manufacturers, seemed less interested in
intellectual pursuits. Unlike later periods where a distinction arose between natural and social
sciences, the Enlightenment thinkers did not differentiate between the study of the natural and
social worlds, influencing the foundation of sociology and other social sciences.

ENLIGHTENMENT AND SOCIAL SCIENCE:

In the eyes of the philosophes, science represented the pinnacle of reason because it allowed
for objective statements beyond philosophical, theological, or ideological disputes. Their
interest in science went beyond mere principles; many were deeply immersed in scientific
knowledge and practices. For instance, Voltaire, inspired by his visit to England, presented a
lucid exposition of Newton's scientific achievements, idealizing Newton as a hero of an age
focused on passion, progress, and the future.
The deification of Newton was widespread during the Enlightenment, with figures like Rousseau
also being likened to the "Newton of the moral world." Several key Enlightenment thinkers,
including Hume, d'Alembert, Condillac, and Kant, contributed significantly to the philosophical
understanding of science and its acceptance as the foundation for comprehending human
nature.
The achievements of science were crucial because they suggested the possibility of a rational,
empirically-based method to generate knowledge free from religious dogma or superstition.
The philosophes aimed to free moral philosophy from reliance on theology, placing it on a
scientific and rational basis. However, this reliance on scientific methods posed challenges,
especially in establishing a scientific basis for societal and cultural values.
Despite these challenges, the philosophes' emphasis on rationalism, empiricism, and
humanitarianism influenced the development of social sciences in two significant ways. Firstly,
they believed in using scientific methods to justify social reform directly. Secondly, there was a
notable cultural relativism, acknowledging that no single culture, especially not Christian
culture, could serve as a standard of perfection. This relativism was reflected in their
understanding that European society did not necessarily represent the best form of social
organization.
Short notes of ENLIGHTMENT AND BIRTH OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
The Enlightenment thinkers were intrigued by other cultures and used reports from travelers
and explorers to argue that human nature was universally influenced by local conditions. This
passion for other cultures was crucial in developing cross-cultural comparison as a
methodological tenet in social sciences. However, the Enlightenment's treatment of other
cultures exhibited contradictions and inconsistencies, with some philosophes highlighting the
'barbarism' of French society by contrasting it with examples of other cultures, while others
used the notion of 'noble savages' to critique the corrupting influence of civilization. Despite
these differences, the common thread was the need to compare and understand European
society in a broader context.