Sociological Theories

Functionalism

The theory is a consensus structural approach to viewing society. Consensus means agreement,
harmony, balance and structuralism refers to the way in which the individual is seen as constrained by
society. New-rights have built on the research conducted by functionalists and are often regarded as the
modern functionalists.

Functionalism is a consensus view of society and has a macro approach. It is believed that society is split
into many social institutions such as the government, religion, family, education and health. If one of the
institutions does not function properly, other institutions may also not function as well. In other words,
if a specific part of society breaks down, all the other parts of society will break down. The institutions of
society must work together in order to create and maintain stability, productivity and a harmonious
society.

 Social Order – Functionalists believe that there are four basic needs than an individual requires.
They are food, shelter, money and clothing.
 Without shared norms, values, meanings and beliefs, social order would not be achievable.
 During the first half of the 20th Century, Functionalism was the main perspective of Sociology.
 Social Structure – consists of norms and values passed on through individuals which shape the
individual.

Emile Durkheim was the founding father of sociology and of functionalism. Durkheim introduced the
idea of ‘collective conscience’ to show how societies needed agreement to stick together. He was
concerned that the changes in modern society were going to weaken the ‘social solidarity’ and as a
consequence we needed the institutions in society to act together to prevent a state of anomie
(normlessness) from occurring within society.

Society exists externally to the individual for Durkheim and there are a group of external factors (social
facts) acting on us as individuals changing our behaviour.

Examples - Durkheim’s research on suicides and the different social facts that effect suicide from
occurring. The difference effects that religion can have on people, he researched the difference in
suicide rates between Protestants and Catholics arguing that stronger social control among Catholics
results in lower suicide rates.

He also found that suicide rates were higher among men than women, higher for those who are single
than those who are married, higher for people without children than people with children, higher
among soldiers than civilians, and higher at times of peace than in times of war.

Durkheim was the first to argue that the causes of suicide were to be found in social factors and not
individual personalities. Observing that the rate of suicide varied with time and place, Durkheim looked
for causes linked to these factors other than emotional stress. He looked at the degree to which people
feel integrated into the structure of society and their social surroundings as social factors producing
suicide and argued that suicide rates are affected by the different social contexts in which they emerge.

Durkheim also distinguished between three types of suicide:

• Anomic Suicide: Anomic suicide happens when the disintegrating forces in the society make
individuals feel lost or alone. Teenage suicide is usually cited as an example of this type of suicide, as is
suicide committed by those who have been sexually abused as children or whose parents are alcoholics.

• Altruistic Suicide: Altruistic suicide happens when there is excessive regulation of individuals by social
forces. An example is someone who commits suicide for the sake of a religious or political cause, such as
the hijackers of the airplanes that crashed into the World Trade Centre, the Pentagon, and a field in
Pennsylvania on 9/11/01. People who commit altruistic suicide subordinate themselves to collective
expectations, even when death is the result.

• Egoistic Suicide: Egoistic suicide happens when people feel totally detached from society. Ordinarily,
people are integrated into society by work roles, ties to family and community, and other social bonds.
When these bonds are weakened through retirement or loss of family and friends, the likelihood of
egoistic suicide increases. Elderly people who lose these ties are the most susceptible to egoistic suicide.

Talcott Parsons is credited with the development of the modern strands of functionalism and the
introduction of the biological (organic) analogy where society is compared to the human body with all
the institutions working together like the parts of the body.

Having a shared culture (norms, values and beliefs) is essential for social order. This is achieved via:
socialisation- passing these values down the generations through the family, education, the media and
beliefs, and social control- rewarding good behaviour and punishing bad behaviour- thus reinforcing the
value system to the majority of the population.

 Society is a functional unit.

 People have the ability to make decisions.
 Core values and norms create social integration.
 System needs – Organisms have needs that must be met in order to survive.
 His view of society is that it is made up of interlinked systems and prerequisites. Parsons
suggests that the systems are interlinked with each other.
 Personality System – concerned with person’s beliefs, goals and values that are internalised
(take in part of someone’s attitudes or beliefs.
 Social System – Institutionalised (placed in a specific institution)
 Cultural System – Core Values and Shared History helps to construct society.

Parson identified the 4 basic needs of society and shows how they are met - Functional Prerequisites:
  Adaptation – Social systems should be adapted to its environment. A system must exist where
food and shelter is obtained. This may involve hunting and gathering. The economic institution
should be used for this prerequisite.
 Goal Attainment – Societies should set goals towards activities directed by institutions and
members. There has to be a legitimate use of power through leadership and direction. The
government should be used for this prerequisite.
 Integration – Societies should work with peer groups, the police and the family so that there is
control in the society.
 Pattern maintenance – In order to maintain a pattern, core values should be reinforced and we
should be constantly socialised. The family, media, religion and education are vital for the
socialisation process because values, meanings and norms are shared within these institutions.

Building on the work by Durkheim, Parson identifies 2 main types of society each with its own patterns
of norms and values (pattern variables).

Type A society - A traditional society Type B society - A modern society

Status is based on ascription (ascribed from birth)
Relationships are multifunctional e.g. knowing all
the people in your community
Particularistic standards are used to judge
people- i.e. who you are, not what you are
Immediate gratification
Collective orientation is important- all for one
and one for all- showing that the group comes
first
Status is based on achievement (this idea is like
the idea that is put forward by the American
Dream)
Relationships are specific i.e. linked to specific
purposes
Universalistic, standards are applied- i.e. the
qualifications are used to determine the best
person for the job
Deferred gratification is more common
Individualism is rife- pursuing one’s own
interests, there is no longer a focus on the
community.

Robert Merton - provides an internal criticism Parsons - Although Merton is a functionalist like Parsons
he did have some issues with the work and ideas put forward by Parsons.

 Dysfunctional elements (e.g. crime)- Merton recognises that some elements of society can be
harmful, for example in some cases Religion can unite people, but can also cause divisions.
 Indispensability- Merton argues that other institutions can perform tasks well e.g. single parent
families can do the same thing as a nuclear family
 Merton also believed that Parsons missed the importance of material interest.

External evaluation of Parsons (provided by other sociologists)

 Marxists and Feminists argue that functionalism doesn’t explain why conflict can sometimes
occur within society.
 Wrong (1967) Argues that Parsons ignores what will happen if socialisation doesn’t occur.
 Giddens argues that Parsons ignores the fact that people can create their own role in society.
 Internationalist argues functionalists ignore how individuals attach meaning to things.
External evaluation of Functionalism
 It is along with Marxism, a reasonably successful attempt to produce a general theory about
society.
 It recognises the importance of social structure in understanding society, how it constrains
individual behaviour, and how the major social institutions, like the family, education and the
economy often have links between them.
 It provides an explanation for social order and stability, and why most people generally conform
to the rules of society.
 Action theorists, discussed shortly, see it as deterministic, as it sees individuals as simply passive
products of the social system, which socialises them into conformity and controls their
behaviour. It doesn’t allow for individual choice, and pays no regard to the action,
interpretations and meanings individuals give to situations, as the social action theorists do.
 It is a metanarrative or grand theory that tries to explain everything from one perspective.
Postmodernists emphasises metanarratives can no longer explain contemporary societies, where
social life is essentially chaotic, values diverse and social structures are fragmented. The
functionalist metanarrative has no more validity, in explaining social life than any other
perspective.
 Functionalism explains the effects before the causes.
 One strength of the Functionalist argument is that it is evident in the real world. When one of
the subsystems breaks down, it collapses and becomes dysfunctional resulting in anomie a state
of chaos. For example, in 2011, the London riots took place. The cause of the riots may be due to
a breakdown in one of the subsystems. MP’s state that the riots took place because families are
now fatherless, meaning that in families, there is not that second role model for the individual.
Therefore, this is a strength because the Functionalist argument is useful to today.
 One strength of the Functionalist argument is that individuals are shaped and programmed by
institutions such as education and religion through socialisation. However, this now applies to
contemporary society because our behaviour is now shaped through the shared norms and
values. Some families now only have one role model and our behaviour can be shaped by the
individuals in the social institutions including friends and teachers. This is a strength because it is
useful to today.
 One weakness of the Functionalist argument is that Functionalists ignores conflict in institutions
in which our behaviour is shaped by. For example, in the educational system, teachers choose to
go on strike because they do not agree with plans that have been proposed by local authorities
or governments. However, this type of conflict can be applied today and therefore it is useful.
 Another weakness of the Functionalist argument is that it also fails to recognise conflict within
the different social institutions. For example, in religion, females and males do not agree with
each other that the Pope is a male and therefore religion should be equal. Therefore, this is a
weakness because it is not useful in today’s society.
 Another weakness of the Functionalist argument is that Functionalists fail to recognise the
conflict in families. For example, knife crime is becoming a problem and in single parent families,
there is not that second role model to support the individual. Therefore, this is a weakness
because it is not useful to today.

The New Right (Neo-Functionalists)

The New Right believe that the state should only have a little amount of involvement in society.
 They do not wish to use the welfare state to deal with social problems. In their view, state
intervention does not give people the freedom to make their own choices and therefore
undermines people’s sense of responsibility. If people are not able to make their own decisions,
this will then lead to social problems such as crime and unemployment. State intervention
means involvement with the government.
 Murray argues that generous benefits and council housing for single parents act as “perverse
incentives” and this weakens self-reliance (the person relying on others). The generous benefits
encourage the growth of a dependency culture. The evaluation for this is that the money has
increased for single parent families in which it has stopped them from choosing to re-marry. The
evidence for this is that the divorce rate has increased because of the growing dependency
culture. Therefore, the government is giving people generous benefits for those who are
struggling. Therefore, this is useful to today because the government are still investing into single
parent families.
 The New Right see the sociologists’ role as proposing policies that promote choice and individual
responsibility. Policies aim to restore the responsibilities of individuals for their own and their
families’ welfare, rather than leaving the responsibilities to the government itself.
 The New Right support a strong “Law and Order” policy. For example, the Wilson and Kelling’s
Article Broken Windows that has been influential in the widespread introduction of zero
tolerance policies.
 Evaluation - Money from the government is being invested in the single parent families. The
evidence for this is that the investment is leading to high divorce rates.

One similarity between the Functionalist View and The New Right View is that they both agree with the
Functionalist view that the family helps society to function. However, the New Right argue that single
parent families should not exist and therefore stop giving out generous benefits because the single
parents are “perverse incentives” to stop the adults in the family doing the traditional roles such as the
instrumental role and the expressive role.

Marxism

The theory is a conflict structualist theory. This means that Marxists believe that society is based on
conflict, in comparison to functionalism which argue that society is based on conflict. There are a variety
of different conflicts that are explored throughout the theory of Marxism. Structuralism means that
Marxists focus on society as a whole and the reasons that they are constrained.

Karl Marx was the founder of Marxism and had views that helped to shape the whole theory. He looked
at 5 different aspects within society.

1. Class consciousness - Capitalism is on the road to destructions as the working class (the larger
class within society), realise that they are being exploited by the ruling class, and as a result of
this they realise that they can change the current situation by uniting as the working class. This is
where ‘Class consciousness’ occurs - the idea that the working class realise that they are being
 exploited and they develop a ‘true consciousness’ about their situation. The ruling class are well
aware that this may occur and they are doing everything to stop ‘true consciousness’s from
occurring. The way in which they do this is by conning the working class into accepting their
position- ‘false consciousness’. This is done by education (the people who get the best results
deserve the best jobs) through the family (keeping the working class worried about whether
they will keep their jobs and making them pay for items within the home) and through the media
(creating wants and need through the advertising of products). All of these elements help to
legitimise the position of the ruling class. Marx’s writing were very much aimed at helping the
ruling class see through the ideas presented by false consciousness.
2. Allienation (the idea that we see others within society as competition) - Marx believes that a
sense of control, creative work and interest is important to us. This gets bashed out of us at
work where we are made to conform in a particular way (Not at HP) and the work that we do
becomes monotonous. Hence we become alienated- even from ourselves- a feeling of
helplessness develops. Consequently people have to find ways in which to escape so they turn
alcohol, drugs and religion in order to allow them to escape.
3. Communism - For Marx the solution arrives when the working class realises that they are bigger
than the ruling class, and as a result of this they unite to overthrow them and consequently a
revolution occurs in the form of communism
4. Class conflict and capitalism - This is a central concept to the work of Marx. In capitalist societies
the Bourgeoisie (the middle/ ruling class) need the proletariat to work for them. They want to
pay out as little as they can- the workers want to earn as much as they can- hence they are
reliant with each other whilst still being in conflict
5. Historical materialism - Marx saw two classes emerging in the capitalist era. The relationship the
person had to the means of production determined their class:
 One class own the means of production (e.g. factories), which are referred to as the
Bourgeoisie (the capitalist ruling class)
 The other owned only their own labour- the Proletariat- the working class (they are
exploited by the ruling class)
The mode of production forms the economic base of society i.e. how things are produced and by
whom shapes the rest of society- the superstructure (institutions, ideas and beliefs).

Criticisms of traditional Marxism

 It is along with functionalism is, a reasonably successful attempt to produce a general theory
about society.
 It is seen as too simplistic. Society is more complex than the two classes described by Marx.
Weber argued that status and power are also important factors.
 Class polarisation has not occurred- the new middle class has grown and the old industrial
working class has shrunk (apart from countries like China and India where the working class has
grown).
 Economic determinism- many disagree that the economic controls all other aspects of society.
 Action theorists focus more on the free will of individuals to bring about change via ideas, new
interventions etc.
  It is a metanarrative or grand theory that tries to explain everything from one perspective.
Postmodernists emphasises metanarratives can no longer explain contemporary societies,
where social life is essentially chaotic, values diverse and social structures are fragmented. The
Marxist metanarrative has no more validity, in explaining social life than any other perspective.
 Revolution hasn’t happened- only in some countries like Russia in 1917 has anything like Marx’s
predicted revolution occurred.
 Focuses on class and ignores other marginalised groups such as women and ethnic minorities.
 Feminists argue that it ignores women and is gender blind.
 Functionalism says that Marxism over emphasises conflict in society.
 Society doesn’t always operate in this way.
 What about political power?

Neo – Marxists - Build upon the works of Marxism

 Gramsci’s idea of hegemony (leadership), or ideological and moral leadership, explains how the
ruling class maintains its position in society. There are two ways the ruling class maintains its
dominance or leadership:
 Coercion (to force to act to think in a certain way through pressure or threat): public services
such as the police, the army, and other areas such as prison and courts force other classes such
as the ruling class to accept that they are ruling them.
 Consent (hegemony): the bourgeoisie use ideas and values to persuade the lower classes that
their rule is legitimate.
 The leadership of the ruling class is not complete because of the following reasons:

1. The ruling class are a small group and have to make ideological agreements with the other
classes.
2. The working class have dual consciousness – this means that when the working class
experience exploitation and poverty, they begin to see through the dominant’s set of ideas.
3. Gramsci rejects economic determinism as an explanation of change. Economic determinism
is a concept that all change, including social and political change is determined by economic
forces of demand and supply. Economic determinism was argued by Karl Marx.
4. Although there is a money crisis in society, it will only lead to revolution (change) if the
working class block what the ruling class are doing in order to win hegemony of society. This
is known as counter-hegemonic bloc.

 Althusser said that society is arranged into three levels. Each level is self-governed and
connected to other levels. It is not dependent on other levels or independent of the other levels.
These are economic, political and ideological. The economic level makes up all activities that
involve producing something that will meet and satisfy a need. The political level makes up all
forms of organisation and the ideological level, involving the ways that we see ourselves and
their world.
 Althusser argued that contradictions (ideas that are opposed to one another) within the different
levels could bring about change and disorder. To stop the capitalist society collapsing,
 “conditions of existence” must be met. For example, children must be socialised with the values
of capitalism that are acceptable. The ideological state apparatus (ISA) performs this function.
ISA is about transmitting set of ideas that preserves the existing social arrangements. These set
of ideas that are passed on through the social institutions such as education ensure that
capitalism continues. Capitalism is when the money and profits are owned by the bourgeoisie.
 The Repressive State Apparatus (RSA) – forces the working class into complying and accepting
with the intentions of the ruling class. This is how Marxists have traditionally seen the state.
 Structural Marxists say that free will, choice and creativity are an illusion. It has been criticised
for placing too much focus on social structure. Individuals are seen as puppets of structuring
society through ideology (the individuals ideas).

Is Marxism Useful For Today???

Support Against
 Economic Crisis – The capitalists are
maximising profits. Therefore, the working
class are receiving low wages. In some
workplaces, there are zero hour contracts.
 Advanced Technology – For example, self
serve checkouts replace workers. Self
serve checkouts cost less than people.
 Factory Machines – “Scunthorpe” –
Industrialisation
 Globalisation – We as humans are now
more interconnected in the world through
the internet, ships, planes and other
transport which connects us to other
countries. For example, call centres are
now based in India. In addition, In India,
there is no minimum wage. Therefore it
benefits them and not the Western World.
 Banks are allowing credit cards, even
though the pay is low for workers. With
credit cards, Capitalists are gaining more
profit.
 The ruling class and the working class are
now seen as “blurred”. In today’s society,
there are now seven classes.
 Elite – More privileged.
 Established Middle Class – Second
wealthiest – second highest for cultural
capital.
 Technical Middle Class – Small and
distinctive which is prosperous for the
future.
 New affluent workers – Young class group
that are socially and culturally active, some
economic capital.
 Traditional working class – Not completely
deprived.
 Emergent service workers – New, young,
urban group – relatively poor – more
cultural capital.
 Preciariat/Precarious Proletariat –
Poorest, Most Deprived Class.
 Ignores importance of other social
institutions. E.G. Religion.
 Feminism

Sex and gender- Ann Oakley (1972) - Talk about the difference between gender and sex. She argues that
sex refers to the biological differences between males and females for example their reproductive
roles, hormonal and physical differences. Gender refers to culturally constructed differences between
the ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ roles and why sex is fixed, gender differences vary between cultures and
over time. She also argues that sexist attitudes are stereotypical beliefs about gender and are
culturally constructed and transmitted through socialization. To achieve gender equality we must
change society’s socialization patterns. They seek to promote appropriate role models in education
and the family, for example getting female teachers to teach subjects that are usually taught by male
teachers. This would challenge gender stereotypes that are portrayed through the media. Over time
they believe such actions will produce cultural change and gender equality will become the norm (this
can be seen as a critique of the functionalist view on expressive and instrumental roles).

Liberal or reformist feminism - They are mainly concerned with the human and civil rights, and the
freedom of individuals. In keeping with the Enlightenment tradition, they believe that all human beings
should have equal rights and they want to achieve this through their work. They believe that reformism
is the idea that progress towards equal rights can be achieved by gradual reforms in society, without
the need for a revolution to occur (this contrasts the ways that Marxism wants to achieve change). They
believe that women can achieve gender equality by arguing that laws and policies against sex
discrimination in employment and education can secure equal opportunities for women. They also
campaign for cultural change to occur and argue that traditional prejudices and stereotypes about
gender differences act as a barrier to equality. They reject the idea that biological differences make
women less competent or rational than men, or men are biologically less emotional or nurturing than
women.

Evaluation of liberal or reformist feminists

 Studies conducted by liberal feminists have produced evidence documenting the extent of
gender inequality and discrimination and legitimising the demand for reform in such areas as
equal pay and employment practices. This has helped to generate that gender differences are
not inborn but the result of different treatment and socialization patterns.
 However they are criticised from over- optimism. They ignore the possibility that there are deep-
seated structures causing women’s oppression, such as capitalism and patriarchy.
 Walby (1997) argues they offer no explanations for the overall structures of gender inequality.
 Marxist and radical feminists argue that liberal feminism fails to recognise the underlying
causes of women’s subordination and that it is naïve to believe that changes in the law or
attitudes will be enough to bring equality. Instead, they believe that far- reaching revolutionary
changes are needed.

Radical feminists - Radical feminism emerged in the 1970s, its key concept is patriarchy. They believe
that patriarchy is universal and exists in all societies. Firestone (1974) believes that the origins of
patriarchy lie in women’s biological capacity to bear and care for infants, since performing this role
means that they become dependent on males. They believe patriarchy is the primary and most
fundamental form of social inequality and conflict. The key division is society is between men and
women as men are women’s main enemy. All many oppress all women. All men benefit from patriarchy
especially from women’s unpaid domestic labour and form their sexual services. Patriarchy is direct
and personal, not only in the public sphere of work and politics but in the private sphere of the family,
domestic labour and sexual relationships. All relationships involve power and they are political when
one individual tries to dominate another. Personal relationships between sexes are therefore political
because men dominate women. Radical feminists refer to these power relationships as sexual politics.
They focus on the ways in which patriarchal power is exercised through personal relationships, often
through sexual or physical violence or threat of. In general, male stream sociology regards sexuality as
a natural of biological urge. However, radical feminists argue that patriarchal constructs sexuality so as
to satisfy men’s desire. Given that excessive patriarchy and women’s oppression of women is exercised
through intimate sexual and domestic relationships these much be transformed if women are to be free.
They have proposed a number of strategies to achieve this:

 Separatism- living apart from men and creating a new culture of female independence.
Greer (2000) argue for the creation of all female households as an alternative to the
heterosexual family.
 Consciousness- raising- through sharing their experiences in women- only consciousness-
raising groups, women come to see that other women face the same problems. This may
lead to collective action, such as reclaim the night marches.
 Political lesbianism- many radical feminists argue that heterosexual relationships are
inevitable oppressive because they involve sleeping with the enemy and that lesbianism is
the only non- oppressive form of sexuality.

Evaluation of radical feminism

 Marxists argue that class, not patriarchy is the primary form of inequality. Capitalism is the
main cause of beneficiary of women’s oppression and not men.
 Radical feminism offers no explanations of why female subordination takes different forms in
different societies. It also assumes that all women are in the same position and ignores class and
ethnic differences between women, e.g. that a middle class women may have more in common
with a middle class women.
 Pollert (1996) argues that the concept of patriarchy is of little value in explaining women’s
position because it involves a circular argument- male violence is explained as patriarchy while
patriarchy is seen as being maintained by male violence.
 Radical feminism has an inadequate theory of how patriarchy will be abolished. Notions such as
separatism are unlikely to be achieved.
 Patriarchy may already be in decline. Liberal feminists argue that women’s position has
improved greatly in recent years as a result of social reforms and changing attitudes. Better
education and jobs mean that gender equality is beginning to become a reality.

Marxist feminists - Women's subordination rotted by capitalism.

Functions of capitalism:
 Reserve army of labour - women are a source of cheap, exploitable labour for employers.
 Absorbing male workers' anger - this would otherwise be directed at capitalism.
  Reproduction of labour - women reproduce the labour force through unpaid domestic labour.

Some Marxist feminists argue that non-econic factors must also be taken into account:

The ideology of familism - Barret - women's role in ideology. The overthrow of capitalism is necessary to
secure women's liberation.
Femininity and the unconscious - Mitchell - femininity is part of who women are.

Sociology and social policy

Social policy refers to the tackling of social problems. It looks at how the actions of the government both
locally and nationally affect the lives of its members, both positively and negatively.

Even when sociologists aren’t directly concerned with the research into social problems, there is no
guarantee that their work will affect the policy makers decisions. There are a number of factors that
can influence this:
 Cost- often seen as the bottom line- even when the government agrees with some research
findings it may feel that it is too expensive to implicate these social policies
 Funding- Researcher may feel that they have to make their research biased when they are
conducting this research depending on the people/ person that is conducting it
 Elections- near election time governments don’t want to adopt a policy that they feel may
alienate the electorate
 Globalisation- policies made within nation states may be ineffective against the force of global
change. Some large MNCs like the IMF, which make decisions which cut across whole nations
 Critical sociology- literally because it is critical of much state policy e.g Marxism, it is rarely
invited to help create policies.

Functionalists are heavily into consensus in society and see the government as acting for the good of
its citizens. Social policies are used for the good of all, helping society to run in a harmonious fashion.

 Favour social policies which are sometimes referred to as ‘piecemeal social engineering’- to
tackle one policy at a time, for example tax rebates
 The meritocratic education system was proposed to make education fair and better for society
 Functionalists are like ‘medical researchers’ (they try to discover the cause of the disease in
order to prevent or cure it). Their role is to provide the state with objective scientific
information, for example investigating social problems and discovering causes
 However, while they claim to be objective, many do state that they should influence policies,
such as those supporting the nuclear family (meaning they are against policies allowing civil
partnerships, support for single parent families, and child benefits)
 Comte and Durkheim argues that the state serves the interests of society producing rational
policies for the good of others. The sociologist’s role is to investigate social problems
scientifically.
 o Critics such as Marxism argue that policies are not aimed at equalizing for all and cause
more conflict than balance.
o Durkheim’s study of suicide was influenced by his personal opinion as a friend recently
committed suicide meaning the results may be subjective.
o They are also criticised for being in power (politically right wing) but not utilising the
power they hold for the better.
o This criticism comes mainly from the Marxists and the Feminists, who state that they
should try and change the existing power structures (ideology and patriarchy).

Marxism sees social policies as serving the interests of the capitalist system

 They legitimize exploitation- e.g. educational policies that pretend to offer equal opportunities
for all- but this is not the case
 The actual function of education is to create a workforce that is used to participating in boring
work
 They also act as a measure of social control- when conflict arises polices are offered to appease
the working class- they are conned and bought off- this is part of the false consciousness process
that is talked about in Marxism.
 Sociologists should criticise capitalist social policy. Sociologists should reveal the exploitation
that underpin capitalist society and the way that the ruling class use social policies to mask
exploitation
 For example, governments state that they have reduced the levels of poverty to almost zero,
when in actual fact all they have done is get rid of the worst of it and have ignored the relative
depravation of the majority of society.
 Therefore, Marxists believe that all policies benefit the ruling class and only large scale reforms
of governmental policies to restrict their power can be truly effective. Because of this, the
Marxists remain objective in their views.
o Marxism don’t recognise some social policies are aimed at doing good and some benefit
the working class for example Sure Start, which raised thousands of children out of
illiteracy at a young age (the Marxists stated that this showed that the children were
being ‘trained’ from an early age).
o The second general criticism is that they are highly bias against seemingly anyone in a
place of power within government. Because of their view that true equality will come
when there is no ruling class, their views on social policies have been branded unrealistic
and unachievable in modern day societies.

Marxist and Radical feminists

 Marxist Feminists believe that all social policies benefit the ruling class, but more specifically the
males of the ruling (or any) social class.
 They have been accused, like the Marxists, of being highly biased, as they believe that all
policies in some way benefit men over women. Other than policies such as the Equal Pay Acts,
 they are against policies, stating that they would rather remain objective, becoming subjective
when there was a chance to remove patriarchy from society.
 Highly similar but at the other end of the scale, the Radical Feminists believe that social policies
are all patriarchal and that patriarchy is the base of society. As soon as patriarchy is removed
from society, the more equal it will become. Therefore they will only support policies created
by women, for women, and passed by women, as this is the only way that patriarchy will be
removed from society.
o Because of this radical view, the Radical Feminists have been criticised for being too bias
against policies and that their views on social change via policies are unachievable (much
like the criticism of the Marxists).

Liberal feminists

 The Liberal Feminists, on the other hand, believe that while patriarchy is prevalent in society,
views can be changed through negotiation, such as the Equal Pay Act and Same Sex Partnerships
(and Marriages).
 They believe, like the Social Democrats (left-wing Functionalists), that social policies can be used
to aide those less well off than the majority of society (in their case, women). However, even
with this, they still believe that all polices that have been passed are patriarchal, but also
believe that, as well as social policy, society must also be changed from the base upwards, a
sort of grass roots movement.
o There are only a few criticisms of the Liberal Feminists, the main one being that they are
not being objective. However, the Liberal Feminists point out that they are not trying to
be objective, rather subjective, as they believe that social policies can change society
and sociology should be involved in this process.
o Another criticism comes from the Marxists who believe that they do not go far enough
in trying to change society.

New Right

 The New Right, in contrast, believe, similarly to the Functionalists, that sociology should try to
influence policies, specifically in relation to education, family, and crime.
 They believe that polices should support the nuclear family, as this will reduce the need for
state support. By having a strong and independent family, there should also be a reduction in
the amount of influence that the Government has in education.
 This is what led to the policies that supported marketisation of schools and the creation of
more academies that are sponsored by companies. These policies also had a direct influence on
other areas of schooling, such as the ending of Sure Start in the United States (government
funded), and the introduction of higher further education fees in the UK, whereby the individual
would make up the difference in price where funding from the government was removed.
 Finally, the New Right advocate a view of zero tolerance in crime, and state that more powers
should be given to the police (although they are in favour of marketising the police and giving
policing contracts to private companies - something that has already been seen in London and
other major cities).
 o However, the main criticism of the New Right is that they are far too idealistic, whereby
they wish to see society as representative of a ‘golden era’ where the nuclear family was
far more common. Critics state that they need to have a more ‘modern’ thinking,
whereby single parent families can happily exist with the same levels of primary and
secondary socialisation.
o Another criticism is that there is a culture of victim blaming whereby in criminal cases,
the victim is on trial just as much as the perpetrator.

Post Modernists

 Post Modernists believe that social policies are pointless, as there is such a level of individualism
within society that they are ineffective and useless, as people can now almost pick and choose
which policies they wish to follow.
 They state that nothing is certain; Lyotard believed that there was an end to the ‘Grand
Narrative’, whereby there is now no longer a single society that everybody lives inside their own
meta-narrative, allowing themselves to choose everything they see and do (for example, which
one of the hundreds of T.V. channels to view).
 The Post Modernists believe that, because nothing is now certain, nothing can be relied upon to
be true, meaning that common definitions used by policies are incorrect, and therefore are
ineffective.
 Therefore, to pass policies that influence society in any way, definitions must be found for
common occurrences (such as crime or the family), which cannot be done, meaning social
polices are pointless.
o However, the Post Modernists have been criticised by the fact that their view is highly
vague, whereby everything has to be defined, leading to an infinite loop that cannot be
stopped.

Postmodernism

Is a different perspective on contemporary society that rejects modernism and its attempts to explain
the world through overarching theories. Instead it suggests that there is a single shared reality and
focuses attention on the significance of the media in helping construct numerous realities.

Foucault argues that knowledge and power are linked as everyone has some form of knowledge, and
some form of power. Individual’s knowledge is based on their experiences. Their ideas of truth and
belief systems come from this experience. Their power stems from the knowledge they develop
through these experiences. An example of this can be seen through the power that police have over
people and the fact that we believe what they say.

A criticism of this view is how we decide who has more power and why do we trust people that are
supposed to exhibit power.
Lyotard argues that meta- narratives cannot exists as everyone is now aware of diversity. According to
Lyotard what we now have is an elaborate language game where competing theories co- exist. So
instead of having all powerful groups imposing meta narrative ‘truths’ on people (regardless of ethnicity
or gender) is able to join in the language game. Although he recognises that we are not equally
powerful- it is how well we play the language game.

Baudrillard is critical of action theorists who focus on the use of signs to symbolise meanings and allow
common sense knowledge. Instead, he argues that signs/ symbols have become meanings in
themselves replacing reality. He uses the term hyper reality- the inability to distinguish between
reality and fantasy e.g. we talk about soap characters as though they are real people and for some
they are more real than real people and we end up with a hyper reality. However these signs are
literally meaningless and we are no longer able to distinguish between image and reality. Culture and
identity have become fragmented, and there is no longer a set of shared values. People can pick and
mix from different cultures and are free to re- invent themselves at will.

Sociology as a science

What is a science?

Science can be seen as a specific body of knowledge different from other forms because it has 5
components:
1. Empirical- can count and measure information.
2. Testable- Scientific elements can be repeated and retested and hence scientific knowledge is
seen as more reliable than less testable forms.
3. Theoretical- Science seeks casual relationships and doesn’t rely simply on describing and it seeks
to explain.
4. Cumulative- It builds on previous knowledge and moves forward our understanding of the word.
5. Objective- personal feelings, prejudices etc. have no place in science. Science is unbiased.

In the past sociology has often been seen as being a science- particularly by positivists. Durkheim was
keen to have sociology classed as a science of society when he was first made the professor of the
subject 100 years ago.

More recent movements in sociology has been less keen to follow the science route- interactionists,
postmodernists and feminists believe that a scientific approach is not a suitable for studying social
behaviour and that the pursuit of scientific status has been more about funding, prestige and status.

1. Yes sociology is a science

 Positivists see sociology as adopting the methods of the natural sciences- the focus on
objectivity, quantitative data, reliability, generalisability means that the ‘ology’ of society is the
science of society. They say that reality exists outside and independently of the human mind.
 Thus suggesting that society is an objective factual reality, made up of social facts that exist
independently of individuals.
 Positivists favour quantitative data, which is easy to quantify, thus suggesting sociology is a
science.
 Durkheim’s study of suicide as a science and that different aspects influence this. That different
religions influence the reasons that people commit suicide. Durkheim’s study creates a law on
suicide.

2. Middle ground

 Popper - Believed that instead of trying to verify theories, science uses the process of
falsification - i.e. trying to prove it wrong. By failing to prove the theory wrong then it shows the
theory has to be tested.
 Thomas Kuhn - argues that a paradigm shift has to occur in order for sociology to be classed as a
science, thus suggesting that sociology is not a science yet. Kuhn criticises the positivist view.
 Realism - takes the middle ground between positivists and Interpretivists. Realists talk about
open and closed systems. Closed systems are systems where researchers have control over
variables. Whereas open systems there is no control over variable for example meteorologists.
They argue that sociology is an open system science. They reject the positivist view on
objectivity. They also argue that sociology cannot be a closed system science.

3. No sociology is not a science

 Interpretvism - see sociology is about the means and motives that individuals have. They focus
on the internal meanings and not the external people. Sociology looks at the meaning that we
attach to things for example the red light- thus showing that we exhibit free will. There are two
different types of interpretivism- phenomenologists and ethnomethnologists.
Phenomenologists and ethnomethnologists say society is an internal force and rejects the
possibility of casual explanations of human behaviour. The second is internationalists who say
that sociology starts without a hypothesis- whereas science has a hypothesis. They favour
qualitative research- whereas science likes quantitative research.

Values and Sociology

Given that sociologists are human beings- can they study society objectively as they are part of what
they study? 3 main positions on this can be identified:
1. Value freedom is possible
2. Value freedom is not possible
3. Values should be celebrated and incorporated into sociological research- committed sociology
Value free sociology

This has developed from positivists who believe that we should copy the methodology of natural
sciences (like biology and chemistry). Like the natural scientist the sociologist studies phenomena that
exist totally externally to the individual. These social facts can be observed objectively by following the
scientific procedure.

Any personal or political beliefs and biases of the researcher are irrelevant as long as the research is
well designed and the findings are not altered or tampered with.

Value Laden Sociology

This school of thought believes that sociology cannot be value free- even if it want to be. A number of
areas show how it is impossible to values out of the picture:
 Funding- Like other sciences, sociology relies on funding from various sources and it is important
to question why a certain piece of research has been commissioned.
 Career progression- Sociologists have personal ambitions and career aspirations. Reputations
can be made and their desires can intrude into research (knowingly or subconsciously).
 Personal beliefs- As sociologists we are human beings and consequently it is impossible to
escape from our personal beliefs no matter how hard we try when conducting research. Choice
of topic in the first place is often a result of personal interests we have.

Committed sociology

Some sociologists argue that sociology cannot and should not be value free and rather as a subject it
should have values guiding research. In the 1970s there was a big debate between Goulnder and
Becker. Both agreed that sociology should openly ‘take sides’ as it were in research.

Gouldner believes that:

1. Sociologists cannot ignore their values when doing research
2. Sociologists need to hold on to their values or they risk ‘selling out’ to the highest bidder when
conducting research.

Becker (famous for his research in labelling theory) argues that sociologists should argue from the side
of the underdog (criminals, mentally ill, patients etc.) because little is known about their position.

Gouldner argued that the opposite and suggested that sociologists should focus on the really powerful
groups as these create the ‘structures of oppression’. Gouldner is critical of Becker’s position which he
sees as an over- sentimental view of disadvantaged groups. Instead, Gouldner advocated a Marxists
position in sliding against the powerful, exploitive groups in society.

Feminists agree with the idea of exposing exploitive groups, but see the key issue being the patriarchal
nature of society- how males dominate and control society.
Left Realists are also committed to the rights of exploited group- but unlike Marxists, they do believe
that change can occur within capitalism.
Relativism

The relativist position argues that there are many different versions of the ‘truth’- the sociologists
research is just one of these. As we have already seen this in the position of postmodernists.

Other disagree and say that there is a real factual world out there and sociologists can observe, record
and report on what is going on out there irrespective of their values.

Weber and Values

 For Weber values, unlike facts cannot be disproved and he saw an essential role for values in
sociological research:
 Values a guide to research- Values are essential to help us choose which aspects of social life to
study.
 Values and data collection- When collecting data Weber believes that we should keep the
values out of the process.
 Values and data interpretation- Values are important again when we interpret what the
researcher is telling us. We need to put the findings within a theoretical concept. We need to
tell others about our values so that our interpretations can be made in context.
 Values and effects on research- Weber believed that as sociologists we have a responsibility to
look at the effects of our research. We cannot hide behind objectivity at this stage- particularly
if our findings that can cause harm.

Values and methods

There is a link between beliefs of value freedom/ laden approaches and the methods chosen to study
social behaviour.

Those who believe a value free approach is possible- such as positivists tend to favour methods
generating quantitative data which is seen as reliable, objective and offering the chance to look for
correlations.

For those who believe that values cannot be ignored and those who warmly welcome their input-
qualitative methods are preferred where depth, validity, verstehen etc. are seen as important.
 Symbolic interactionism

Society and social structures are figments of people’s imagination. They place an emphasis on
voluntarism, free will and choice. The focus of research is placed on the individual or on small groups
of individuals to see how they interact and people exhibit free will and choice. People’s behaviour is
viewed as being driven by beliefs, meanings, feelings and emotions and how they apply them to
certain situations. The main methodological approach is an interprevist approach, using qualitative
methods of research to gather information on society.

Mead was the founder of symbolic internationalism, but Bulmer was the first sociologist to use the term
was Bulmer. Bulmer argues that people act in terms of symbols which are things like objects, words,
expressions or gestures that stand for something else and too which individuals have attached
meanings to. These meanings develop out of an individual’s interaction with others and can change
during interaction. These meanings often arise from and interpretive process as people try to interpret
the meaning others give to actions by imaging themselves in these position and taking on their role.

Cooley - Developed the concept of the ‘looking- glass self’. He described the ideas as ‘I am not what I
think I am, I am not what you think I am, I am what you think I am’ . This statement refers to how the
meaning individual’s gives to situations are constructed in face to face interaction- for example the
labelling of Hippy Marijuana smokers (Jock Young). Cooley looks at how individuals and situations come
to be defined as or classified in certain situations.

Labelling theory - This idea suggests that we label and define individuals and situations in particular
ways. For example the effects of labelling theory on crime and deviance. For example Jock Young’s
research on Hippy Marijuana smoking, Cohen ‘Black muggers’, Chambaliss ‘the Saints and the
Roughnecks’ and the different types of labelling primary and secondary (Lemert). They also look at
how teachers label pupils and how this can lead to a self- fulfilling prophecy. They also look at how the
mentally ill are labelled and how this effects them.

Goffman studies the ways that people construct meanings and interpretations in the process of
interaction, using what has been described as a dramaturgical model, based on society being like the
stage. They say that like people in society actors constantly put on an act to portray themselves
socially. They argue that people are involved in impression management and the way that we want
others to see us- this is often achieved through the use of symbols. Goffman says that everyone is
involved in the manipulation of people’s behaviour. He also says that structural approaches are
completely inadequate for explain society.

Garfinkel - Looks at ethnomethodology - this is a description of the methods or interpretive process

which people use to make sense of and construct order in their everyday social world. He also rejects
the idea that society has a social order and this is an illusion. This can be seen through Atkinson’s view
of suicide- and the idea that suicide doesn’t exist and it is just a social construction.
Strengths

 It shows that human beings create and negotiate meanings, and make sense of the world either
through the interaction or by drawing on common- sense understanding.
 It fully explains people’s actions.
 It provides a real insights into how the social construction of meanings through interaction has
consequences.
 Qualitative methods of research.

Weaknesses

 It doesn’t explain why the structure of society has so much power.

 It doesn’t explain people’s motivation.
 It tends to underestimate or ignore the distribution of power in society.
 Postmodernists claim it is a metanarrative and isn’t adequate to explain the formation of
society.