International Journal of Food Properties

ISSN: 1094-2912 (Print) 1532-2386 (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/ljfp20

Friction Factors and Rheological Behavior of

Australian Honey in a Straight Pipe

Peter A. Sopade, Peter J. Halley, Bruce D'Arcy, Bhesh Bhandari & Nola Caffin

To cite this article: Peter A. Sopade, Peter J. Halley, Bruce D'Arcy, Bhesh Bhandari & Nola
Caffin (2004) Friction Factors and Rheological Behavior of Australian Honey in a Straight Pipe,
International Journal of Food Properties, 7:3, 393-405, DOI: 10.1081/JFP-200032925

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1081/JFP-200032925

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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES
Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 393–405, 2004

Friction Factors and Rheological Behavior of Australian

Honey in a Straight Pipe

Peter A. Sopade,1,* Peter J. Halley,1 Bruce D’Arcy,2

Bhesh Bhandari,2 and Nola Caffin2
1
Centre for High Performance Polymers, Division of Chemical Engineering and
2
Food Science and Technology Group, School of Land and Food Sciences,
University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia

ABSTRACT

The pumping characteristics of four Australian honey samples were investigated in

a straight pipe. Six flow rates (100–500 kg h
1) were studied at three temperatures
(35–50 C). The pressure loss increased with an increase in the length of the pipe,
as the flow rate was increased and as the temperature was reduced. In the 25.4 mm-
pipe, the Reynolds number ranged from 0.2–32.0 and are substantially less than the
critical value (2040–2180) for laminar condition in the system. The relationship
between the wall shear stress and shear rate approximated power-law behaviour,
and the power-law index was not significantly ( p > 0.05) different from 1.0. The
honey samples exhibited Newtonian behaviour at all the temperatures and this
was confirmed by rheometric studies using Couette geometry. A friction chart was
generated independent of temperature and the type of honey. An equation was
developed to predict the pressure loss of the honey in a typical pipeline at any
temperature once the viscosity–temperature relationship had been established.

*Correspondence: Peter A. Sopade, Centre for High Performance Polymers, Division

of Chemical Engineering, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
Fax: þ61-7-336-54199; Tel: þ61-7-33653931; E-mail: p.sopade@cheque.uq.edu.au.

393

DOI: 10.1081/JFP-120030048 1094-2912 (Print); 1532-2386 (Online)

Copyright & 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. www.dekker.com
 ORDER REPRINTS

394 Sopade et al.

INTRODUCTION

In the food industry, processing requirements can demand the transport of

materials between operations. Liquid foods or ingredients are generally pumped, and
the differential pressure at the ends aids flow.[1] During the flow over the walls of a
pipe, friction is generated, and this impedes flow but the energy supplied by the
pump must overcome this. In estimating the pumping requirements, losses due to
friction have to be calculated, and a friction chart of the liquid for the system simplifies
this. The friction chart is a plot of the friction factor against the Reynolds number.[1]
Friction factors are key properties of pumpable materials, and they have been
estimated for a number of foods[2–7] but no data on honey is available. Few studies
that reported the pumping behaviour or requirements of honey either worked
on diluted samples[8] or did not generate friction and viscometric information.[9,10]
The importance of assessing frictional losses in pipeline design and selection of
pumps has been discussed elsewhere.[1] Therefore, the objectives of this study were to
investigate the pumping characteristics of four liquid Australian honeys, obtain their
friction charts and compare their rheological parameters with rheometric data to
guide predictive studies.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Generally, honey is a Newtonian liquid but non-Newtonian behaviour has been

reported for some varieties.[11,12] For pumping analysis, honey can be treated as a
special case of power-law materials, and hence the power-law model (Eq. (1)) can be
applied:

¼ K n ð1Þ
For the flow of a power law fluid, the dimensionless generalized Reynolds
number to characterize the flow in a pipe[1] is given by:
 n 2
n  
D v 4n n
RePL ¼ ð2Þ
8n
1 K 3n þ 1
The average velocity is related to the flow rate as:
4Q 4G
v¼ or ð3Þ
D2 D2
Reynolds number defines whether the flow is laminar or turbulent and there is a
transition between the two. The transition is dependent on the material and the
characteristics of the pipeline. Consequently, values in the range of 2000–4000 have
been obtained for different systems, but Steffe[1] defined the critical Reynolds
number for most purposes as:
6464nð2 þ nÞð2þnÞ=ð1þnÞ
Recritical ¼ ð4Þ
ð1 þ 3nÞ2
Hence, when RePL (Eq. (2)) is less than Recritical (Eq. (4)), flow is regarded as
laminar; a condition for the Rabinowitsch-Mooney equation to be applicable for the
 ORDER REPRINTS

Behavior of Australian Honey in A Straight Pipe 395

estimation of the shear rate at the wall:

 0  
3n þ 1 32Q
w ¼ ð5Þ
4n0 D3
or
   
24Q df8Q=D3 g
w ¼ þ
w ð6Þ
D3 d
w
Equation (5) is a more convenient form of the Rabinowitsch-Mooney Eq. (1),
while the shear stress at the wall is described as:

P

w ¼ ð7Þ
4ðL=DÞ
The n0 in Eq. (5) is the point slope of the log–log plot of
w against the apparent
wall shear rate ð32Q=D3 Þ, and it is equivalent to the power-law index for most
fluids.[1] However, the true power-law index is better obtained by applying the
power-law model (Eq. (1)) to the
w– w data.
Garcia and Steffe[13] have defined the friction factor, f, as:
2
w
f ¼ ð8Þ
v2
This follows from combining Eq. (7) with the equation (Eq. (9)) for the pressure loss
in a pipe system[4]:
L 2

P ¼ 2f v ð9Þ
D
Generally, in the laminar flow region, the Fanning friction factor is related to
the Reynolds number as in Eq. (10) but constants other than 16 have been obtained
for some foods.[2]
16
f ¼ ð10Þ
RePL
Other friction factors such as the Darcy friction factor (4f ) are used in pipeline
designs.[4] Equation (10) holds irrespective of the pipe roughness but for flows in the
turbulent region, the relationship between the friction factor and the Reynolds
number is more complex and dependent on the nature of the surface.[1] Since honey is a
viscous liquid, it is mostly pumped under laminar conditions and the Rabinowitsch-
Mooney equation can be used to examine its rheological behaviour in a pipeline.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials

Four commercial honey samples (Table 1) were obtained from a local processor
(Capilano Honey Ltd., Richland, QLD 4077, Australia), held at 40 C for not less
 ORDER REPRINTS

396 Sopade et al.

Table 1. Selected properties of the honey samples.

Name Code Density (kg m
3) Moisture content (%) Sourcea

Canola Canola 1490±10.4b 17.5 Gunalda, QLD

Coolibah Co’bah 1450±33.8 16.5 Inverell, NSW
Salivation Jane SJ 1460±7.3 17.2 Dubbo, NSW
Yapunyah Yap 1440±12.7 15.7 Wanaaring, NSW
a
QLD ¼ Queensland and NSW ¼ New South Wales, states in Australia.
b
Figures are means±standard deviations of four determinations per temperature per sample.

Hot
water
out

Honey
tank
Jacket

Pressure transducers

Hot
water Experimental region Exit region
in

Entrance region
Pump
Container
Heat
exchanger

Figure 1. The set-up for the pumping experiment.

than seven days in closed plastic containers to dissolve any crystals. They were then
held at about 30 C before the pumping studies.

Pumping

The pumping set-up is as shown in Fig. 1. The mass flow rate was measured
manually by weighing samples collected over a known time. Rotameter was not used
because the samples were considered too viscous. The pipe (diameter 25.4 mm) was
well insulated (ArmaflexTM, Armstrong-Nylex Pty. Ltd., Braeside, VIC. 3195,
Australia) throughout its length to minimize temperature fluctuations, and three
temperatures ( C), 35, 40, and 50 were studied. The honey was left for not less than
1h to equilibrate at the test temperature, which was maintained by hot water from a
heat exchanger circulating in the jacket around the balance tank. Six flow rates
(100–500 kg h
1) were studied using a screw ‘‘mono’’ pump (Mono Pumps (Aust.)
Pty. Ltd., Kedron, QLD 4031, Australia), and four pressure transducers (ECEFast,
Morningside, QLD 4170, Australia) were connected to the experimental part of the
pipe. The first transducer was placed at about 2.5 m from the pump (>95D) while the
 ORDER REPRINTS

Behavior of Australian Honey in A Straight Pipe 397

last transducer was about 1.5 m (>1.5D) from the exit. Steffe[1] reported that
pressure devices must be far away from the ends to minimize end effects while
Adhikari and Jindal[6] used distances that are identical to ours in their studies for
negligible end effects.
The pressure transducers were calibrated between 30–50 C and a linear
relationship (r2 > 0.99) was obtained between pressure and voltage. A datalogger
(DT 500, Data Electronic (Aust.) Pty. Ltd., Rowville, NSW 3178, Australia) was
used to obtain the voltage every 10 s (DeTerminalTM software) for not less than
10 min per setting of the pump after 5 min equilibration; the minimum residence
time averaged 2 min at the lowest flow rate. Average pressure drops were used for
all the calculations, as the coefficient of variation was less than 15%.

Rheometric Studies

Rheometric studies were performed using a steady rate sweep test at shear
rates (s
1) from 0.1 to 100 at 35, 40, and 50 C in the Rheometrics Dynamic
Spectrometer II (Rheometric Scientific Inc., Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA). A Couette
geometry was used consisting of a cup (diameter, 34 mm) and bob (diameter, 32 mm;
length, 34 mm), while moisture loss during the analysis was prevented by a layer of
silicone oil on the surface of the sample. Triplicate analysis was done for each
condition, and results are presented as averages without error bars because the
coefficient of variation was generally less than 10%. Samples were equilibrated for
not less than 25 min at each set temperature, and the rheometer was calibrated as
part of our periodic schedule using standard liquids.

Density

The density of the honey was measured by weighing a known volume and this
was done at 35, 40, and 50 C. Distilled water was used as the standard.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Flow Rate

Irrespective of the temperature, the flow rate of the honey was linearly related
(r2 > 0.97) to the pump setting, and not significantly affected by the test temperature.
Also, the test temperature did not significantly ( p < 0.05) influence the density of the
honey (Table 1). Although an increase in temperature is expected to increase the flow
rate of honey,[9,10] it could be that the volumetric expansion of the honey samples
within the range of temperature studied was negligible. In addition, apart from the
Yap sample, which approximated the expected trend (not shown), the other samples
had moisture content (Table 1) more than 15%. They were possibly too watery for
the temperature effect to be significant. From our measurement within this
temperature range, the density of water averaged 1011  10.6 kg m
3, and not
 ORDER REPRINTS

398 Sopade et al.

substantially temperature dependent. However, it should be stressed that the density

of the honeys is from 1410–1500 kg m
3, which is within the range reported in the
literature.[14]

Pressure Drop

Figure 2 shows the relationship between pressure loss and L:D ratio (Bagley plots)
for the Canola honey to indicate a typical trend. Generally, pressure loss increased
with an increase in the length of the pipe, as the flow rate was increased and as the
temperature was reduced. This trend is in line (Eq. (9)) with the well-known Bagley
analysis, and the inverse relationship of temperature with viscosity. The Bagley plot is
normally used to estimate the correction for the entrance effect, and the procedures are
described elsewhere.[1] Also, this author was of the opinion that if the position of the
pressure device was much greater than the entrance length as calculated by Eq. (11),
then 98% of the flow would have developed before the measurement.
 
3n þ 1 n
XE ¼ DRePL ð
0:125 þ 0:175Þð8n
1 Þ ð11Þ
4n

240 118 kg/hr

189
220 236
295
200
Pressure drop (kPa)

354
180 424

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20
L:D ratio
0
0 50 100 150 200

Figure 2. The relationship between pressure and L:D ratio for Canola at 35 C.
 ORDER REPRINTS

Behavior of Australian Honey in A Straight Pipe 399

The maximum entrance length for the honey samples at all the temperatures are
shown in Table 2. It can be observed that the length allowed for in this study, which
is 2.5 m, more than catered for this and, therefore, entrance effect could be accepted
to be negligible under all the conditions investigated. In other words, the flow was
fully developed in this study before the pressures were measured. The slip correction
is another important one. Slip results when a thin layer (boundary layer) of fluid,
having a viscosity lower than that of the fluid, forms at the wall of a pipe or the wall
of any viscometer.[1] To correct for this, pipes of different diameters are normally
used in order to obtain the effective slip coefficient. Since only one diameter was
investigated in this study, it was not possible to correct for slip. However, it is
doubtful if slip would have been significant in pumping honey, which is generally
a Newtonian liquid.

Wall Shear Stress and Rate

From the range of Reynolds numbers in Table 2, laminar flow was obtained
because they are all less than the critical values. Hence, the Rabinowitsch-Mooney
equation was applied, and the relationship between the wall shear stress and rate for
all the honeys, follows the power-law model as typified in Fig. 3 for the Co’bah
honey. The power-law parameters as well as the coefficients of determination are
shown in Table 2. The power-law indices are not significantly ( p < 0.05) different
from 1.0, and this indicates that the honeys exhibited Newtonian behaviour during
the pumping. The viscosity (or consistency index) is temperature dependent, which
is expected. The Arrhenius model was suitable (r2 > 0.95) in describing the tem-
perature dependence but it is recognised that other models such as the Williams-
Landel-Ferry (WLF) model could be better.[15,16] Although the three levels of
temperature studied limit any detailed analysis of the influence of temperature, the
Canola honey exhibited the greatest sensitivity to temperature among the samples.
The temperature coefficients ðEa =RÞ for the honey are Canola, 9810; Co’bah, 5900;
Yap, 8270. No analysis was conducted on the SJ because there was no data at 50 C
due to the pressure drop being lower than the sensitivity of the transducers at all the
flow rates.
From the rheometric data, the shear stress–shear rate relationship also follows
the power-law model (Fig. 4), and the correlation was high (r2  1.00). Moreover, the
power-law indices are essentially 1.0, and the viscosity is temperature dependent
but numerically different from that estimated from the pipe. Although the range of
the wall shear rate (10–50 s
1) during the pumping experiment is within that
studied with the rheometer, the latter is more sensitive equipment with better
controls, and so the difference could be due to this. Rozema and Beverloo[2] observed
differences between their viscometric and pipe data. However, a major deduction
from Table 2 is that the rheological behaviour of the honey samples during pumping
can be closely predicted by steady-state rheological studies. In addition, the pumping
behaviour can possibly be predicted by oscillatory (dynamic) studies if the Cox-Merz
rule[17] applies.
 400

Table 2. Pumping and rheological parameters for the honey.

Power-law model
Friction charta
Entrance
Pipe data Rheometric data f ¼ A Re
B
length
2
Honey (mm) RePL Recritical n K r n K r2 A B r2

Canola 35 C 1.1 0.2–0.8 2120 0.96 8.13 1.00 0.95 8.31 1.00 16.00 1.00 0.99
40 C 1.2 0.3–1.0 2060 1.07 4.32 0.99 0.98 4.84 1.00
50 C 3.8 0.8–3.0 2100 1.00 1.81 0.96 0.93 1.91 1.00
1.01  0.056b 0.95  0.027
ORDER

Co’bah 35 C 24.7 5.0–19.0 2120 0.95 0.32 0.96 0.98 0.18 1.00 16.00 1.00 0.98
40 C 46.7 9.0–35.6 2140 0.93 0.20 0.97 0.97 0.11 1.00
50 C 38.0 22.8–32.0 2060 1.07 0.13 0.94 0.95 0.04 1.00
0.99  0.077 0.97  0.016
SJ 35 C 11.9 5.0–10.4 2040 1.18 0.27 0.93 1.00 0.26 1.00 16.00 1.00 0.99
40 C 32.9 16.7–28.4 2050 1.09 0.13 0.95 0.99 0.15 1.00
REPRINTS

50 C ndc nd nd nd nd nd 0.97 0.06 1.00

1.09  0.003 0.99  0.011
Yap 35 C 1.3 0.4–1.0 2100 1.00 4.96 0.96 0.99 4.91 1.00 16.12 0.99 0.99
40 C 1.3 0.4–1.1 2040 1.11 3.05 0.98 0.97 3.18 1.00
50 C 8.0 3.1–6.0 2170 0.87 1.41 0.95 0.92 1.26 1.00
0.99  0.120 0.96  0.035
a
Friction chart based on Eq. (10).
b
Figures are means  standard deviations of n-values since they are temperature independent.
c
nd ¼ no data because pressure drop was below the range of the pressure transducers.
Sopade et al.
 ORDER REPRINTS

Behavior of Australian Honey in A Straight Pipe 401

10

Wall shear stress (Pa)

Shear stress = 0.20(Shear rate)0.93

r2 = 0.97

Wall shear rate (s-1)

1
10 100

Figure 3. The relationship between wall shear stress and rate for Co’bah at 40 C.

1000

35°C
40°C
50°C

100
Shear stress (Pa)

10

Shear rate (s-1)

0.1
0.1 1 10 100

Figure 4. The relationship between shear stress and rate for Yap using the rheometer.
 ORDER REPRINTS

402 Sopade et al.

Friction Chart

Figure 5 shows the friction chart for the honey, and this should be valuable to
the honey industry, which is a key member of the food and pharmaceutical
industries. It can be observed that the relationship between the Fanning friction
chart and Reynolds number is not dependent on the temperature and the type of
honey (Table 2). When the data for all the honeys were put together, the constant

Figure 5. The friction charts for the honeys.

 ORDER REPRINTS

Behavior of Australian Honey in A Straight Pipe 403

in Eq. (10) equals 16.04 and the index for the Reynolds number is
1.0, while
r2 ¼ 0.9983. Generally, while an increase in temperature decreases the friction factor
because the liquid is less viscous and frictional drag is less pronounced, the Reynolds
number increases because of the inverse relationship with viscosity.
Our observation that the type of liquid does not affect the relationship between
the friction factor and Reynolds number in the laminar region is in line with
published studies.[2,5] Although more honey samples will have to be tested for
confirmation of the trend reported here, our results support that Eq. (10) can be
applied to honey during pumping. The significance of this is that within the laminar
region, the pressure drops during pumping of honey that exhibits Newtonian
behaviour can be estimated by combining the above equations to yield Eq. (12):
  
Ea LQ

P ¼ 128 o exp ð12Þ
RT D4

Equation (12) assumes Arrhenius relationship with temperature but should the
WLF model be preferred as demonstrated elsewhere[15,16] for honey, then:
  

C1 ðT
Tg Þ LQ

P ¼ 128 g exp ð13Þ
C2 þ ðT
Tg Þ D4

This implies that knowing the parameters of the Arrhenius or WLF model for
the honey, the pressure drop can be estimated for a straight pipe of known length
and diameter at the flow rate envisaged for processing. Therefore, using a tested
predictive technique (e.g., artificial neural networks), a pressure chart can be
generated to serve the honey processor. This will be valuable in estimating the
pumping requirements of honey; an issue that is of utmost importance in the honey
industry.

CONCLUSIONS

The four commercial honey samples that were studied behaved as Newtonian
liquids during pumping, and this agreed with the rheometric information. The
Rabinowitsch-Mooney equation was suitable in analyzing the pumping character-
istics of the honey and the pressure loss was dependent on temperature, flow rate,
length of pipeline, and the viscosity of the honey. Rearranging existing equations
developed an equation that could be useful in estimating the loss in pressure when
honey is pumped in a straight pipe. The general relationship between friction factor
and Reynolds number was confirmed for the honey irrespective of the type and
temperature. A typical pipeline consists of pipe fittings, having established the
behaviour in a straight pipe studies on the flow of honey in fittings would
complement this as well as an examination of slippage conditions during honey
transport in pipelines.
 ORDER REPRINTS

404 Sopade et al.

NOMENCLATURE

 Shear rate (s
1)

Shear stress (Pa)
0 Viscosity (Pa s) at a reference temperature (T ! 1)
g Viscosity (Pa s) at the glass transition temperature

P Pressure drop along the pipe (Pa)
w Shear rate at the wall (Pa)

w Shear stress at the wall (Pa)
A Constant
B Constant
C1 Constant in the WLF model
C2 Constant ( C, K) in the WLF model
D Diameter of the pipe (m)
 Density of the liquid (kg m
3)
Ea Activation energy (J kg
1)
f Fanning friction factor
G Mass flow rate (kg s
1)
K Consistency index (Pa sn)
L Length of the pipe (m)
n Power-law index
n0 Constant
Q Volumetric flow rate (m3 s
1)
R Universal gas constant (8.316 J kg
1 K
1)
r2 Coefficient of determination
Recritical Critical Reynolds number
RePL Reynolds number of the power-law fluid
T Temperature ( C, K)
Tg Glass transition temperature ( C, K)
v Average velocity of flow (m s
1)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Rural Industries Research Development

Corporation, Honeybee Program for financial support, Capilano Honey Ltd.,
Brisbane for the samples, and Mr. Ross Millewski of the School of Land & Food
Sciences for technical support.

REFERENCES

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Michigan, 1996.
2. Rozema, H.; Beverloo, W.A. Laminar, isothermal flow of non-Newtonian fluids
in a circular pipe. Lebensm.-Wiss. u. Technol. 1974, 7, 223–228.
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