IIT-JEE/NEET

Engineer Your Education to Success with a Group Exclusive of NITIANS

CLASS 11th COURSE

Subject – BOTANY(BIOLOGY) NEET/11th

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Faculty Name: VALMIKI KUMAR

Faculty Name: VALMIKI KUMAR
• WHAT IS PHOTOSYNTHESIS?
• Photosynthesis is a physico-chemical process in which organic food
(glucose/starch) is synthesized with the help of inorganic raw materials ,CO2 and
H2O in presence of sunlight and photosynthetic pigments (Chlorophyll).O2 is
released as byproduct.

• DEFINING REACTION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• SOME INFORMATIIONS ABOUT PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• Light energy is converted into chemical energy.

• First, photosynthesis started in eubacteria.

• First oxygenic photosynthesis started in cynobacteria.

• Photosynthetic reaction ia redox reaction ( oxidation of H2O and reduction of CO2

takes place).

• It is an anabolic process.

• It ia an endergonic process.
Where does photosynthesis take place
• Photosynthesis does take place in green parts of plant.
• Photosynthesis takes place in specialized cell organelle i.e.
chloroplast.
• Chloroplast has two parts
(i) Membrane system (Granum)
(ii) Fluid part (Stoma)
Photosynthesis at a glance

• Granum is responsible for trapping light energy and synthesizing ATP and
NADPH+ H+ used in dark reaction.
• Stroma (fluid part) is responsible for synthesizing sugar (Biosynthetic
phase / Dark reaction)
•How many pigments involved in Photosynthesis:
•Pigments: Pigments are special molecules which absorb transmit and reflect different
colour of light of specific wavelength.
•Photosynthetic pigments are of following types in higher plants
(i) Chlorophylls
(ii) Carotenoids
(i)Chlorophylls are two types
(a) Chlorophyll a (C55 H72 O5 N4 Mg )
(b) Chlorophyll b (C55 H70 O6 N4 Mg )
❖Chlorophyll is universal pigment, which is formed in all O2 liberating photosynthesis
organisms.
(ii) Carotenoid is also of two types
(a) Carotene (Hydrocarbons)
(b) Xanthophyll (Oxygenated-hydrocarbons)
 -The maximum absorption of
chl-a is blue and red regions.
• - Also there is higher rate of
• phosynthesis is in blue and red region.
• - So we can say that chl-a is chief
• photosynthetic pigment.
• - Rest photosynthetic pigments act as
• accessary pigments to protect main
• photosynthetic pigment.
•
•What is light reaction?
•What is photosystem?
• The groups of photosynthetic pigments in thylakoid membranes are knows as photosystem.
• The pigments are organised as two discrete photochemical light harvesting complexes
• (LHC) within the photosystem I (PS I) and Photosystem II (PS II)
•Photosystem = Reaction center + LHC
↓ ↓
Consists of a Harvest different
molecules of ch-a wavelength of light and
provide to reaction center.
• LHC also called antena molecules.
• The reaction center is different in both photosystems.
• In PS I the reaction center ch-a has an absorption peak at 700 nm, hence is called P700, while PSII has
absorption peak at 680 nm, and is called P680.
• PS I and PS II are named in the sequence of their discovery.
• Light reaction or the ‘photochemical’ phase include light absorption, water splitting, oxygen release,
and the formation of high energy chemical intermediates ATP and NADPH.
Location of PSI and PSII within thylakoid.
• #PSII is located on appressed region of thylakoid and PSI is located on
non-appressed region of thylakoid and in stromal thylakoid.
• #So we can say that granal thylakoid has both PSI and PSII while
sromal thylakoid has only PSI.
• Light reaction, the electron transport, splitting of water and
photophosphorylation.
•
• -Both PSI and PSII involved
• in non-cyclic
• phptophosphorylation.
• So it occurs at granal
• thylakoid not in stromal
• thylakoids because it
• lack PSI as well as NADP
• reductase.
Electron transport during light reaction
• First when PS-I get light energy its electron get excited and oxidation potential of P680 increases.
↓
The electron move downhill to pheophytin.
↓
Pheophytin passes electron to a hydrogen carrier plastoquinone. Plastoquinone accept e from pheophytin and H + from stroma.
↓
Plastoquinone passes electron to cyt b6f and pump H + to thylakoid lumen.
↓
Then e is except by plastocyanin which then donate electron to PS-I.
↓
PS-I also get light energy and its e is excited.
↓
Excited e from PS-I is accepted by Fes/FRS which is them accepted by Ferredoxin.
↓
Ferredoxin donates 𝑒 − to NADP + which accepting 𝐻 + from stroma converted into NADPH + H + in presence of enzyme NADP
reductage.

#Due to excitation of 𝑒 − of P 680, PS-II becomes 𝑒 − deficient and this 𝑒 − deficiency is fulfilled by
splitting of water (photolysis of H2 O. 𝑒 − released by splitting of H2 O is accepted by P 680).
#This whole pathway of movement of 𝑒 − is called Z-Scheme because of characteristic shape.
• Formation of proton gradient:
• Three event contribute to formation of proton gradient-
(i) Photolysis of water- Release H + in lumen of thylakoid.
(ii) PQ pump H + in thylakoid lumen.
(iii) NADP + eccept H+ from stroma to form NADPH + H+
• These all three events create a condition where H + concentration is higher in lumen of
thylakoid than stroma called proton gradient.
• This proton gradient is used in ATP synthesis.
• Three important events during non-cyclic photophosphorylation:
(i) Photolysis of water (Evolution of 𝑂2 )
(ii) Formation of NADPH + H +
(iii) Formation of ATP
• Since during z-Scheme, ATP formation takes place in presence of light called
photophosphorylation and e− excited from PS-II is not recycled back, so it is called noncyclic
Photophosphorylation.
• Cyclic-photophosphorylation

• - Only P-I operates. So, it will take place in stromal

• thylakoid.
- The e− excited from P-I is recycled back.
• - No photolysis of water (NO O2 evolution)
• - No formation of NADPH + H +
• - H+ gradient is created by pumping H + by PQ only in lumen.
- Since, ATP formation takes place in presence of light and
e_ is recycled back ,so it is called cyclic
photophosphorylation
Chemiosmotic hypothesis(ATP formation)
• Chemiosmotic hypothesis (Formation of ATP)
• Proposed by Peter Mitchell to explain the mechanism of ATP formation (photophosphorylation)
in chloroplast (During photosynthesis) and in mitochondria (During respiration)

• The proton gradient produced across membrane of thylakoid is important for ATP formation.

• The breakdown of this gradient leads to release energy.

• The gradien is broken down due to movement of proton across the membrane to the stroma through the
transmembrane channel of the 𝐹0 of the ATPase.

• The ATPase enzyme consist of two parts: one called the 𝐹0 is embedded in the membrane and form a
transmembrane channel that carries out facilitated diffusion of protons across the membranes. The other
portion is called F1 and protrudes on the outer surface of the thylakoid membrane on the side of stroma.

• The breakdown of the gradient provides enough energy to cause a conformational change in the F1
particle of the ATPase which leads to formation of ATP.
• WHERE ARE THE ATP AND NADPH USED? (Dark Reaction/Biosynthetic phase)
➢ In this process CO2 is reduced to sugar. It is known as dark reaction but it doesn’t mean that it
occurs in dark. This process does not directly depend on the presence of light but is dependends on the
products of the light reaction like ATP and NADPH2 so immediately after light becomes unavailable, the
biosynthetic process continues for some time and then stops.

➢ Reduction of 𝐶𝑂2 is a multistep process which was described by Melvin Calvin and Benson. Calvin presented
these reactions in cyclic manner & thus called as Calvin cycle.

➢ Biosynthetic phase completes in different plants by 3 different pathways-

1. 𝐶3 pathway 2. 𝐶4 pathway 3. CAM pathway

➢ In 𝐶3 pathway, Biosynthetic phase has only Calvin cycle. In 𝐶4 and CAM pathways, some additional reactions
also occur before Calvin cycle, during biosynthetic phase.

• The 𝐶𝑂2 reduction or assimilation into glucose in all photosynthetic plants take place by Calvin cycle , as it is
the ultimate pathway of glucose synthesis operated in 𝐶3 , 𝐶4 , & CAM Plants
1. 𝑪𝟑 pathway or The Calvin cycle:
➢ 𝐶3 pathway occurs in stroma of chloroplast of mesophyll cells.
• 1st stable compound of Calvin cycle is 3carbon compound-PGA (Phosphoglyceric acid or
phosphoglycerate) thus Calvin cycle is called C3 −cycle.
• 2. 𝑪𝟒 pathway/𝑪𝑶𝟐 concentrating mechanism/Co-operative photosynthesis/Dicarboxylic acid
cycle (DCA cycle)/Hatch & Slack Pathway
First stable product of this pathway is OAA, which is a 4C, DCA (Dicarboxylic Acid), thus Hatch
& Slack pathway is called 𝐶4 cycle or DCA cycle.
E.g. of 𝐶4 plants-Sugarcane, Maize, Sorghum

Kranz (Wreath) Anatomy – Present in leaves of 𝐶4 plants. In these plants special green large cells
are found around the vascular bundles in leaves, these are called bundle sheath cells, and the
leaves which have such anatomy are said to have ‘Kranz anatomy’. ‘Kranz’ means ‘wreath’ and is
reflection of the arrangement of cells.

➢ The bundle sheath cells may form several layers around the vascular bundles, they are
characterized by-
• (i) having a large number of chloroplast
• (ii) thick walls impervious to gaseous exchange
• (iii) no intercellular spaces
➢ Two types of photosynthetic cells involved in dark reaction of 𝐶4 plants, Bundle sheath cells and mesophyll cells. Thus
operation of Hatch and slack pathway requires cooperation of both photosynthetic cells i.e. Mesophyll cells and BS cells.
Initial 𝐶𝑂2 fixation occurs in mesophyll cells By PEP case and final 𝐶𝑂2 fixation in BS cells by RuBisCO.

➢ First 𝐶𝑂2 acceptor in 𝐶4 plants is PEP (Phosphoenol Pyruvate) (3C – compound) in mesophyll cells, while second 𝐶𝑂2
acceptor is RuBP (5C- compound), in bundle sheath cells.

➢ Initial fixation of 𝐶𝑂2 in mesophyll cells is catalyzed by PEP case ( PEP carboxylase), which results in the formation of
OAA(4C), So called 𝐶4 pathway.

➢ Then reduction of OAA take place by NADPH2 results in formation of malic Acid (4C) or transamination of OAA resulting
in formation of Aspartic acid (4C).

➢ The malic acid or Aspartic acid (4C) formed in mesophyll cells in transfered to bundle sheath cells. In B.S cells the oxidative
decarboxylation of malate takes place and 𝐶𝑂2 is released along with pyruvic Acid (3C).

➢ Released 𝐶𝑂2 in B.S Cells is accepted by RUBP, catalyzed by RuBisCO. The 𝐶3 cycle/ Calvin cycle operates in B.S cells
with utilization of assimilatory power (18 ATP & 12 𝑁𝐴𝐷𝑃𝐻2 ) resulting in formation of glucose or fructose.

➢ Pyruvic acid from B.S cells return to mesophyll cells. It regenerate the PEP (pri. 𝐶𝑂2
• acceptor) by utilization of 12 ATP, catalyzed by enzyme PPDK (Pyruvate phosphate dikinase). So in 𝐶4 plants total 30 ATP
and 12 𝑁𝐴𝐷𝑃𝐻2 are utilized for synthesis of one glucose or Fructose.
NCERT diagram of Hatch and Slack pathway
• Photosrespiration
➢ The light dependent uptake of 𝑂2 & release of 𝐶𝑂2 in 𝐶3 photosynthetic cells is called Photorespiration.

➢ RuBisCO is characterized by the fact that its active site can bind to both 𝐶𝑂2 and 𝑂2 -hence the name. This binding
is competitive. It is the relative concentration of 𝑂2 and 𝐶𝑂2 that determines which of the two will bind to the
enzyme. (Usually RuBisCO has a much greater affinity for 𝐶𝑂2 than for 𝑂2 ).

➢ The reason of photorespiration is same site of 𝑂2 evolution/photolysis of 𝐻2 𝑂 and catalytic activity of RuBisCO,
this site is Chloroplast of Mesophyll cells.

➢ Conditions for photorespiration- High 𝑂2 , Low 𝐶𝑂2 , High light intensity and high temperature.

➢ In 𝐶3 plants some 𝑂2 does bind to RuBisCO and hence 𝐶𝑂2 fixation is decreased. Here the RuBP instead of being
converted to 2 molecules of PGA, binds with 𝑂2 to form one molecule of phosphoglycerate (3C) and one molecule
of phosphoglycolate (2C).
➢ In the photorespiratory pathway there is neither synthesis of sugars, nor of ATP and 𝑁𝐴𝐷𝑃𝐻2 .
Rather it results in the release of 𝐶𝑂2 with the utilization of ATP. Therefore, photorespiration is
a wasteful process.

➢ It occurs in chloroplast, peroxisome & mitochondria.

➢ In 𝐶4 plants photorespiration does not occur. This is because they have mechanism that
increases the concentration of 𝐶𝑂2 at the enzyme site. This take place when the 𝐶4 acid (malic
or aspartic acid) from the mesophyll cell is broken down in the bundle sheath cells to release
𝐶𝑂2 (𝐶𝑂2 pumping), this results in increasing the intracellular concentration of 𝐶𝑂2 . In turn,
this ensures that the RuBisCO functions as a carboxylase minimizing the oxygenase activity.

➢ Also, in 𝐶4 plants, site of 𝑂2 evolution (mesophyll cell) and site of RuBisCO activity (Bundle
sheath cell) are different.
• FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Concept of law of limiting factor:(by Blackman):- When a process is affected by a number of factors, then the
rate of process at a time is limited by the factor which is at suboptimal level (less than optimum value).
• 𝐶𝑂2 is limiting in clear sky but light becomes limiting in cloudy days in dense forest or for plants growing in
shade.
• EXTERNAL FACTORS-
• 1. Light-
• With increasing light intensity, rate of photosynthesis also increases but upto a limit, after which other factors
becomes limiting and rate does not increases further. At higher light intensity photo oxidation (solarization) of
pigments may occur.
• Intensity of light at which rate of photosynthesis becomes equal (or compensate) to rate of respiration in plants
(True respiration + photorespiration) is known as light compensation point (Net photosynthesis or Net Primary
Productivity at this point is zero). No exchange of gases with atmosphere. This happens at the time of evening &
morning.
• Light saturation occurs at 10% of full sunlight.
• 2. Temperature-

➢ The dark reaction being enzymatic are temperature controlled. Though the light reactions are
also temperature sensitive they are affected to a much lesser extent.

• The 𝐶4 plants respond to higher temperatures (30° − 40°) and show higher rate of
photosynthesis while 𝐶3 plants have a much lower temperature optimum 20° − 25℃
• 3. 𝑪𝑶𝟐 -
➢ Carbon dioxide is the major limiting factor for photosynthesis. The concentration of 𝐶𝑂2 is very low the atmosphere (between
0.03 and 0.04 percent). Increase in concentration upto 0.05 percent can cause an increase in 𝐶𝑂2 fixation rate, beyond this the
levels can become damaging over longer periods.

➢ The 𝐶3 and 𝐶4 plants respond differently to 𝐶𝑂2 concentration. At low light conditions neither group responds to high 𝐶𝑂2
conditions. At high light intensities, both 𝐶3 and 𝐶4 plants show increase in the rates of photosynthesis.

• 𝐶4 - Plants show saturation at about 360𝜇𝑙𝐿−1while 𝐶3 responds to increased 𝐶𝑂2 concentration and saturation is seen only
beyond 450𝜇𝑙/𝐿. Thus, current availability of 𝐶𝑂2 levels is limiting to the 𝐶3 plants not for 𝐶4 plants.

➢ The fact that 𝐶3 plants respond to higher 𝐶𝑂2 concentration by showing increased rates of photosynthesis leading to higher
productivity has been for some greenhouse crops such as tomatoes and bell pepper. They are allowed to grow in carbon
dioxide enriched atmosphere that leads to higher yields (𝐶𝑂2 fertilizing effect).
• 4. Water-
➢ Less availability of water reduces the rate of photosynthesis (stomata get closed). Besides, water stress also makes leaves wilt,
thus, reducing the surface area of the leaves and their metabolic activity as well.
▪ RED DROP AND EMERSON ENHANCEMENT EFFECT:-

➢ Emerson & Arnold worked on Chlorella and gave the concept of two photosystems or two pigment systems. When they gave
only monochromatic red light, longer than 680 nm wavelength, then quantum yield suddenly dropped down. This phenomenon
was called red drop.

➢ When Emerson gave light, shorter and greater than 680 nm

➢ (combined light) then photosynthetic activity increases, it

➢ becomes more than the sum total of the photosynthetic yield

which was obtained separately in the light of more than 680 nm
and less than 680 nm. This was called Emerson enhancement
effect.