Notes TOS Outline DevPsych Final

Developmental Psychology
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Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018), Sigelman-Rider (2012)
- progressive
Hellow, future RPm! Learning – how a person adapt to the environment
o Behavioral Genetics – scientific study of the extent
Doubt is definitely going to eat you this review season. I to which genetic and environmental differences
among people and animals are responsible for
just want you to know that it is very VALID to feel that
differences in their traits
way. But always remember to go back to the reason why
o Heritability – proportion of all the variability in the
you are doing this. trait within a large sample of people that can be
linked to genetic differences among those
May this reviewer help you pass the boards like it did to individuals
me and to many people that I know <3 o Gregor Mendel – studied the heredity in plants
o Selective Breeding – involves attempting to breed
We will be remembered animals for a particular trait to determine whether the
trait is heritable
▪ Genes contribute to such attributes as activity
Perspectives on Nature and Nurture level, emotionality, aggressiveness, and sex drive
o Human Development – focuses on the scientific in rats mice, and chickens
study of the systematic processes of change and 1. Twin Studies
stability in people 2. Adoption Studies
o Life-Span Development – concept of human 3. Family Studies
development as lifelong process, which can be o Concordance Rate – the percentage of pairs of
studied scientifically people studied in which if one member of a pair
o Life-Span Perspective – views development as displays the trait, the other does too
lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, Reaction Range – wide range of possibility that it
multidisciplinary, and contextual, and as a process might exhibit differently
that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of Canalized Range – limited possible changes of
loss changing (fixed)
Domains of Development - e.g., motor and language development
Physical Development – growth of the body and brain, o Genes turn on and off in patterned ways throughout
sensory capacities, motor skills, and health the lifespan (Epigenetics)
Cognitive Development – learning, attention, o Gene-Environment Interaction – the effects of
memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity genes depend on what kind of environment we
Psychosocial Development – emotions, personality, experiences, and how we respond to the environment
and social relationships depends on what genes we gave
o Social Construction – a concept or practice that is o In an instance, Intelligence is strongly influenced by
an invention of a particular culture or society heredity. However, it is also affected by parental
o Stability-Change Issue – which involves the degree stimulation, education, peer influence, and others
to which early traits and characteristics persists o 3 factors that contribute to individual differences
through life or change in emotionality:
o Continuity-Discontinuity – focuses on the degree to 1. Genes
which development involves either gradual, 2. Shared Environmental Influences – common
cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages experiences that work to make them similar (e.g.,
(discontinuity) parenting style)
Growth – physical changes 3. Nonshared Environmental Influences – unique
- quantitative experiences to the individual – those who are not
Maturation – transitional state that tells a person is shared with the other members of the family (e.g.,
fully functional parental favoritism)
- the unfolding of natural sequence of physical change 3 kinds of Gene-Environment Correlations
and behavior patterns Passive Gene-Environment – parent provide for their
Development – functional changes children is influenced partly by the parents’ genotypes
- it encompasses physical, mental, and social aspects
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Evocative Gene-Environment – child’s genotype o Theory – set of logically related concepts or
evokes certain kind of reactions from other people statements that seek to describe and explain
- Genetic makeup may affect the reactions of other development and to predict the kinds of behavior that
people to a child and, hence, the kind of social might occur under certain conditions
environment that the child will experience o Hypothesis – explanations or predications that can
Active Gene-Environment – children’s genotype be tested by further research
influence the kinds of environment they seek o John Locke – Tabula Rasa
o Heredity – consists of inborn traits and o Jean Jacques Rousseau – children are born “noble
characteristics provided by the child’s parents savages” who develop according to their own
(Nature) positive natural tendencies if not corrupted by
o Environment – influences stems from the outside society
body, starting from conception throughout life o Mechanistic Model – people are like machines that
(Nurture) react to environmental input (reactive)
o Individual Differences – people differ in gender, o Organismic Model – people as active, growing
height, weight, and body build; in health and energy organisms that set their own development in motion;
level, etc. initiate events, and do not just react (active)
o Heredity – consists of inborn traits provided by the o Continuous – gradual and incremental
parents o Discontinuous – abrupt or uneven
o Context of Development: o Quantitative Change – change in number or
1. Family – Nuclear and Extended Family amount, such as height, weight, or vocabulary size
2. Socioeconomic Status – combination of economic o Qualitative Change – emergence of new
and social factors describing an individual or family, phenomena that could not be easily predicted on the
including income, education, and occupation basis of the past basic functioning
3. Culture – society’s or group’s total way of life o Evolutionary Psychology – emphasized the
▪ Ethnic Gloss – overgeneralization that obscures importance of adaptation, reproduction, and
or blurs variations “survival of the fittest” in shaping behavior
▪ Race – identifiable biological category, is more o Nativist Perspective – genes
accurately defined social construct o Empiricist Perspective – environment
4. Gender o Noam Chomsky – all children acquire language in
5. History the same way
o Normative Influences – biological or environmental Research Methods in Developmental Psychology and
events that affect many or most people in a society in Ethics
a similar ways and events that touch only certain Ethics
individuals o APA General Principles:
a. Normative Age-Graded Influences General Principles
b. Normative History-Graded Influences A. Beneficence and Take care to do no harm;
▪ Historical Generation – group of people who Nonmaleficence minimize harm
experience the event at a formative time in their B. Fidelity and Establish relationships of
lives Responsibility trusts, upholding
▪ Age Cohort – group of people born at about the professional standards of
same time conduct, cooperate with
o Nonnormative – unusual events that have major other professionals if
impact on individual lives because they disturb the needed to serve the best
expected sequence of the life cycle interests of the client, and
o Imprinting – instinctively follow the first moving strive to contribute their
object they see professional time,
o Critical Period – specific time when a given event, compensated or not.
or its absence, has a specific impact on development C. Integrity Promote accuracy,
o Sensitive Periods – when developing person is honesty, and truthfulness
especially responsive to certain kind of experience
o Plasticity – modifiability of performance
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D. Justice Fairness and justice to all ▪ Seek individual’s assent, provide an explanation,
person to access and consider their best interest, and obtain permission
benefit from the from their guardians
contributions of ▪ Must appropriately document written or oral
psychology consent, permission or assent
E. Respect for People’s Respect the dignity and o Permission for recording images or vices are needed
Rights and Dignity worth of all people by unless the research consists of solely naturalistic
exercising their rights to observations in public places, or research designed
privacy, confidentiality, includes deception
and self-determination ▪ Consent must be obtained during debriefing
o PAP General Principles: o Dispense or Omitting Informed consent only when:
General Principles 1. Research would not create distress or harm
I. Respect for Dignity of - Respect for all human ▪ Study of normal educational practices conducted
Persons and Peoples beings, diversity, culture, in an educational settings
beliefs ▪ Anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic
- free and informed observation, archival research
consent ▪ Confidentiality is protected
- privacy, fairness, and 2. Permitted by law
justice o Avoid offering excessive incentives for research
II. Competent Caring - working for their benefit participation that could coerce participation
for the Well-being of and do no harm o DO not conduct study that involves deception unless
Persons and Peoples they have justified the use of deceptive techniques in
III. Integrity - honesty, truthfulness, the study
open and accurate ▪ Must be discussed as early as possible and not
communication during the conclusion of data collection
- appropriate professional o They must give opportunity to the participants about
boundaries, multiple the nature, results, and conclusions of the research
relationships, and and make sure that there are no misconceptions about
conflicts of interest the research
IV. Professional and - contributing knowledge o Must ensure the safety and minimize the discomfort,
Scientific about human behavior infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects
Responsibilities to - conducting affairs within ▪ If so, procedures must be justified and be as
Society society with highest minimal as possible
ethical standards ▪ During termination, they must do it rapidly and
o Must provide accurate information and obtain minimize the pain
approval prior to conducting the research o Must no present portions of another’s work or data
o Informed consent is required, which include: as their own
✓ Purpose of the research ▪ Must take responsibility and credit, including
✓ Duration and procedures authorship credit, only for work they have
✓ Right to decline and withdraw actually performed or to which they have
✓ Consequences of declining or withdrawing substantially contributed
✓ Potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects ▪ Faculty advisors discuss publication credit with
✓ Benefits students as early as possible
✓ Limits of confidentiality o After publishing, they should not withhold data from
✓ Incentives for participation other competent professionals who intends to
✓ Researcher’s contact information reanalyze the data
o Researchers who study vulnerable population should ▪ Shared data must be used only for the declared
obtain informed consent both from the individual and purpose
guardian o Researchers who study cultural influences on
development or racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic
differences in development must work hard to keep
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their own cultural values from biasing their - high internal validity
perceptions of other groups Quasi-Experiment – natural experiment; compares
▪ Ethnocentrism: one’s group is superior than the people who have been accidentally assigned to separate
other groups groups by circumstances of life
o Do not conduct studies that involves deception - Actually, a correlational study
unless deceptive techniques are justified Differentiating Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal
▪ If ever, deception must be explained as early as Studies
feasible during the conclusion of the participation Developmental Research Designs
and participants have the right to withdraw if they Cross-Sectional
want to do so - children of different ages are assessed at ONE point
Basic Research Designs of time
Descriptive – aims to observe and record behavior - more economical
Case Study – study of a certain individual or group - no cases of attrition (dropping out of the study) or
- Useful in rare cases repeated testing (practice effect)
- Offers useful, in-depth information - individual differences and trajectories may be
- Can explore sources of behavior, test treatments, and obscured
suggest directions for further research - results can be affected by differing experiences of
- Cannot be easily generalized to other population people born at different times
- Cannot make strong causal statements Longitudinal
- low external validity - study the SAME GROUP or PERSON more than
Ethnographic Studies – seek to describe the pattern of once, or even years apart
relationships, customs, beliefs, technology, arts, and - can track individual patterns of continuity and change
traditions that make up a society’s way of life - time-consuming and expensive
- Case study of the culture - repeated testing could result to practice effect
- Open to observer bias - attrition could be a problem
- Help overcome cultural biases in theory and research - turnover of research personnel, loss of funding, or the
- Debunks the logic of western developed theories can development of new measures or methodologies
be universally applied Sequential
Correlational Study – determine whether a correlation - data are collected on successive cross-sectional or
exist between variables, phenomena that change or longitudinal samples
vary among people or can be varied for purposes of - track people of different ages over time
research - allows researchers to separate age-related change
- Study of the relationship between one variable and from cohort effects and provides more complete picture
another without manipulation of development
- No random assignment - drawbacks: time, effort and complexity
- Lack of control over extraneous variables - requires large number of participants and collection
- Cannot establish causation and analysis of huge amounts of data over a period of
- Used to study many important issues that cannot be years
studies experimentally for ethical reasons - Cohort Effects: important because they can
- Can study multiple influences operating in natural powerfully affect the dependent measures in a study
settings ostensibly concerned with age
- high external validity Developmental Theories (25)
Experiment – controlled procedure which the Psychosexual Theory by Freud (3)
experiment manipulated variables to learn how one o humans were born with a series of innate,
affects another biologically based drives such as hunger, sex, and
- Establish cause-and-effect aggression early experiences shaped later
- Permit replication functioning
- Manipulation o people are driven by motives and emotional conflicts
- Could encounter ethical issues of which they are largely unaware that they are
- Can be artificial shaped by their earliest experiences with the family
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o viewed newborn as “seething cauldron”, an - Oedipus Complex: loves his mother, fears that his
inherently selfish creature driven by Instincts father will retaliate by castrating him, and resolves the
(inborn biological forces that motivate behavior) conflicts through identification with his father
o strongly believed in unconscious motivation – the - Electra Complex: a girl having desire with her
power of instincts and other inner forces to influence father, seeing her mother as a rival
our behavior without out awareness - Castration Anxiety: son believes his father knows
o biological instincts provide unconscious motivation about his desire for his mother and fears that his father
for actions will castrate him
o selfish and aggressive = negative view of human - Penis Envy: a girl wants a penis as she desires her
nature father
o Id, Ego, Superego Latency
1. Id – pleasure principle, impulsive, irrational, selfish, - sexual urges sublimated into sports and hobbies
seeks immediate gratification Genitals
2. Ego – reality principle, rational, finds realistic way - genitals
to gratify instincts - physical sexual urges reawaken repressed needs
▪ Emerge during infancy when psychic energy is - direct sexual feelings towards others lead to sexual
diverted from the id to energize cognitive gratification
processes - may have difficulty accepting their new sexuality,
3. Superego – morality principle, individual’s therefore, reexperiencing conflict towards their
internalized moral standards parents and distance themselves to defend against
▪ develops from the ego as 3-6 years old internalize anxiety-producing feelings
the moral standards and values of their parents o personality formed from unconscious childhood
o Healthy Personality = balance of the id, ego, conflicts between the inborn urges of the id and the
superego requirements of civilized life
o Psychological problems arise when the individual’s o Defense Mechanisms – ego adapts unconscious
supply of psychic energy is unevenly distributed coping devices
among the id, ego, and superego Repression – unacceptable or unpleasant impulses are
o Fixation – arrest in development that can show up in pushed back into the unconscious
adult personality; libido remains tied to an earlier - a woman who experienced sexual harassment cannot
stage of development recall what happened to her
▪ Oral Fixation: may grow up to become nail-biters Regression – behaving as if they were at an earlier
or smokers stage of development
▪ Anal Fixation: may be obsessively clean, rigidly - your father throws a tantrum when he was left alone
tied to schedules and routines, or defiantly messy at home
Oral Displacement – the expression of an unwanted feeling
- Mouth or mere thought is redirected from a more threatening,
- experience anxiety and the need to defend against it powerful person to a weaker one
if denied oral gratification by not being fed on - an employee shouted at his child after being scolded
demand or being weaned too early by his boss
- Oral Fixation manifested in adults: alcoholic, Rationalization – people distort reality in order to
smoking, overeating, Pica, nail biting, thumb sucking justify something that has happened
Anal - a swimming athlete who lost her competition took her
- anus loss as something she expected anyways, and she did
- toilet training era not want the trophy
- Anal-Retentive: perfectionist, orderly, tidy Denial – people refuse to accept or acknowledge an
- Anal-Expulsive: lack of self-control, messy, careless anxiety-producing piece of information
Phallic - a widow never accepted that her husband died in an
- genitals accident
- youngsters develop an incestuous desire for the Projection – people attribute unwanted impulses and
parent of the other sex and must defend against it feelings to someone else
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- A woman fat-shamed another woman because she is o children are not born with innate ideas of reality
insecure about her body o Constructivism – children actively construct new
Sublimation – people divert unwanted impulses into understandings of the world based on their
socially approved thoughts, feelings, or behaviors experiences
- An angry man jogged instead to cool down his anger o development as the product of children’s attempts to
Reaction-Formation – unconscious impulses are understand and act upon their world
expressed as their opposite in consciousness o begins with an inborn ability to adapt to the
- A mother who unconsciously resent her child, acts environment
lovingly consciously o Cognitive Growth occurs through 3 related
o stage-oriented processes: Organization, Adaptation, and
o reactive Equilibration
Psychosocial Theory by Erikson Organization – tendency to create categories
Period Crisis Virtue - Schemes: ways of organizing information about the
Infancy Trust Vs. Mistrust Hope world that govern the way the child thinks and behaves
Toddlerhood Autonomy vs. Will in a particular situation
(Early Shame and Doubt Adaptation – how children handle new information in
Childhood) light of what they already know
Early Childhood Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose - Assimilation: incorporating it into existing cognitive
(Play Age) structures
Middle and late Industry vs. Competence - Accommodation: adjusting one’s cognitive structures
Childhood Inferiority to fit the new info
(School Age) Equilibration – children want what they understand of
Adolescence Identity vs. Fidelity the world to match what they observe around them
Identity
Confusion Their understanding = what they observe
Young Intimacy vs. Love o provided rough benchmarks for what to expect of
Adulthood Isolation children at various ages and has helped educators
Middle Generativity vs. Care design curricula appropriate to varying levels of
Adulthood Stagnation development
Late Adulthood Integrity vs. Wisdom o underestimated Children and overestimated adults
Despair (not all people develop formal operations)
o emphasized the influence of society on the o stage-oriented
developing personality o active
o Crisis: major psychosocial challenge that is Sensorimotor
particularly important at that time and will remain an o The first stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive
issue to some degree throughout the rest of life development is Sensorimotor Stage
o each stage requires balancing positive and negative o Approx. from birth to 2 years old
tendency o Circular Reactions – an infant learns to reproduce
o successful resolution of each crisis puts the person in events originally discovered by chance
a particularly good position to address the next crisis, o Schemes – actions or mental representations that can
a process that occurs iteratively across the life span be performed on objects
o social and cultural influences mattered o Assimilation – occurs when children use their
o Social Clock: conventional, culturally preferred existing schemes to deal with new information
timing of important life events o Accommodation – occurs when children adjust their
o development is a lifelong process schemes to take new information and experiences
o stage-oriented into account
o active o Organization – grouping of isolated behaviors and
Cognitive Development by Piaget thoughts into higher-order system
o viewed intelligence as a process that helps an o Disequilibrium – cognitive conflict
organism adapt to its environment o Children constantly assimilate and accommodate as
they seek equilibrium
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o Equilibration – children shift from one stage of ▪ Children lacked the ability to retain mental
thought to the next representations
Substages o Infants under the age of about 8 months act as if an
1. Use of Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month) object no longer exists once it is out other line of
[ reflexes ] sight
Exercise their inborn reflexes and gain some control o Object Permanence – the realization that something
over them continues to exist when out of sight
Practice their reflexes and control them (e.g., sucking o Until about 15 months, infants use their hands to
whenever they want to) explore pictures as if they were objects
2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months) o By 19 months, children are able to point at a picture
[ pleasure ] of an object while saying its name, demonstrating an
Repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by chance understanding that a picture is a symbol of something
Begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp else
objects o Dual Representation Hypothesis – proposal that
They turn towards the sounds children under age of 3 have difficulty grasping
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months) spatial relationships because of the need to keep
[ interesting results ] more than one mental representation in mind at the
Repeat actions that brings interesting results same time
Pre-operational
Learns about causality
o Jean Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development
4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8-12
o Lasting from ages 2 to 7, characterized by the
months) [ usage of previously learned info ]
expansion in the use of symbolic thought
Coordinate previously learned schemes and use
o Children begin to represent the world with words,
previously learned behaviors to attain their goals
images, and drawings
Can anticipate events
o Dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months) o Does not yet perform Operations (which are
[ exploration ] reversible mental actions that allow children to do
Purposefully vary their actions to see results mentally what before they could do only physically)
Actively explore the world o Preoperational Thought – beginning of the ability
Trial and error in solving problems to reconstruct in thought what has been established
6. Mental Combinations in behavior
Can think about events and anticipate consequences o Divided into Symbolic Function and Intuitive
without always resorting action Thought
Can use symbols such as gestures and words, and can 1. Symbolic Function – being able to think about
pretend something in the absence of sensory or motor cues
Transition to Pre-operational stage ▪ Can use symbols, or mental representations such
Learns about numbers as words, numbers, or images to which a person
o Representational Ability – the ability to mentally has attached meaning
represent objects and actions in memory, largely ▪ Deferred Imitation: children imitate an action at
through symbols such as words, numbers, and mental some point after observing it
picture ▪ Pretend Play: fantasy play, dramatic play, or
o Infants develop the abilities to think and remember imaginary play; children use an object to
o Visible Imitation that uses body parts that babies can represent something else
see develops first followed by Invisible Imitation ▪ The most extensive use of symbolic function is
(involves with parts of the body that babies cannot language
see) ▪ Occurs between ages of 2 and 4
o Piaget believed that children under 18 months could 2. Intuitive Thought – begin to use primitive reasoning
not engage in Deferred Imitation and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions
▪ Reproduction of an observed behavior after the ▪ Occurs approx. 4-7 yrs of age
passage of time o Children also begin to able to understand the symbols
that describe physical spaces
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o Piaget believed that children cannot yet reason ▪ Inductive Reasoning: involves making
logically about causality observations about particular members of a class
o Transduction – they mentally link two events, of people, animals, objects, or events, and then
especially events close in time, whether or not here drawing conclusions about the class as a whole
is logically a causal relationship {specific > general conclusion}
o Identities – the concept that people and many things ▪ Deductive Reasoning: starts with a general
are basically the same even if they change in outward statement about a class and applies it to particular
form, size, or appearance members of the class {general conclusions
o Animism – tendency to attribute life to objects that application}
are not alive ▪ Piaget believed that children in the concrete
o Centration – the tendency to focus on one aspect of operations stage only used inductive reasoning
a situation and neglect others ✓ Conservation
▪ Children cannot Decenter (think about several ▪ Principle of Identity: still same object even tho it
aspects of a situation at one time) has different appearance
▪ Involves on focusing on one dimension while ▪ Principle of Reversibility: can picture what would
ignoring the other happen if he tried to roll back the clay of snake
▪ Irreversibility: failure to understand that an action ▪ Decenter: ability to look at more than one aspect
can go in two or more directions of the two objects at once
o Egocentrism – young children center so much on ✓ Numbers
their own point of view that they cannot take in Formal Operational
another’s o Adolescents enter what Piaget called the highest
o Conservation – the fact that two things are equal level of cognitive development – Formal
remain so if their appearance is altered, as long as Operations
nothing is added or taken away o Adolescents move away from their reliance on
o Theory of Mind – the awareness of the broad range concrete, real-world stimuli, and develop the
of human mental states – beliefs, intents, desires, capacity for abstract thought
dreams, and so forth – and the understanding that o Usually around 11 yrs old
others have their own o They can now use symbols to represent other
▪ Allows us to understand and predict the behavior symbols, hidden messages, imagine possibilities,
of others and makes the social world create hypotheses
understandable o Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning – methodical,
Concrete Operational scientific approach to problem solving, and it
o At about 7 years of age, children enter the stage of characterizes formal operations thinking
Concrete Operations according to Jean Piaget ▪ Involves ability to develop, consider, and test
o Children can now think logically because they can hypotheses
take multiple aspects of situations into account ▪ Piaget attributed it to a combination of brain
o However, their thinking is still limited to real maturation and expanding environmental
situations in the here and now opportunities
o Better understanding of: o According to David Elkind, the new way of thinking
✓ Spatial concepts – allows to interpret maps and of adolescents, the way they look at themselves and
navigate environment their world, is as unfamiliar to them as their reshaped
✓ Causality – makes judgement about cause and effects bodies, and they sometimes feel just awkward in its
✓ Categorization use
▪ Seriation: arranging objects in a series according o Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind at
to one or more dimensions the same time yet may lack effective strategies for
▪ Transitive Inferences/Transivity: e.g. A < B < C choosing them
▪ Class Inclusion: ability to see the relationship o Self-Consciousness – adolescents can think about
between a whole and its parts, and to understand thinking – their own and the other people’s thoughts
categories within a whole o Imaginary Audience – a conceptualized “observer”
✓ Inductive and Deductive reasoning who is concerned with a young person’s thoughts and
behavior as he or she is
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▪ Adolescents often assume everyone is thinking Child becomes aware that while rules might exist for
about the same thing they are thinking about: the betterment of everyone, there are times you have to
themselves bend the law for self-interests. Goodness of all.
o Personal Fable – belief that they are special, their
experience is unique, and they are not subject to the e.g., Some lawyers study the law so in case they need
rules that govern the rest of the world it, they can find a loophole and they won’t be convicted.
▪ Underlies much risky, self-destructive behavior Some laws are unfair and unjust.
▪ Brain immaturity biases adolescent toward risky Stage 6: Universal Principles
decision making People developed their own set of moral guidelines,
o Adolescents also become more skilled in social which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply
perspective-taking, the ability to tailor their speech to everyone. They do what they think is right regardless
to another person’s POV of legal restrictions or opinion of others. Whatever
o Fuzzy-Trace Theory Dual-Process Model – other people would say.
decision making is influenced by two cognitive
systems: verbatim analytical and gist-intuitional, e.g., LGBTQIA++ community are still being
which operate in parallel discriminated and just tolerated by the society, but
Moral Development by Kohlberg certain someone thinks that they deserve better. Thus,
Level I: Preconventional Morality (3-7 yrs old) they do everything to recognize the rights of the people
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation of the minority.
The child/individual is good to AVOID o Kohlberg placed too much emphasis on moral
PUNISHMENT because punishment equates, they thought and not enough for moral behaviors
must have done something wrong o Cosmic Stage – people consider the effect of their
actions not only on other people but on the universe
“What will happen to me if I do this?” as a whole
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange o Just because a person is capable of moral reasoning
Children recognize that there is not just one right view does not necessarily mean the person actually
that is handed down by authorities. They conform to engages in moral reasoning
rules out of self-interest and consideration what others
o Kohlberg’s System is biased against non-western
can do for them.
cultures
“You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.” o Only 20% or 1/5 of adults reach Level III of Morality
Level II: Conventional Morality (Morality of o Very sexist and biased against women (males tend to
Conventional Role Conformity) (8-13 yrs old) focus on logic and rules) according to Gilligan
Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationship o Carol Gilligan – women prioritize an “ethics of
The child is good in order to be seen as a good person care” as their sense of morality evolves along with
by others. Approval of others is important. their sense of self
▪ care and empathy
e.g., Donating to the victims of the recent typhoon and Piaget’s Moral Reasoning
posting it on social media so everyone knows they did o Moral Reasoning – the application of principles of
something good. logic to moral issues in order to decide which actions
Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order are right or wrong, just or unfair
The child becomes aware of the rules of the society, so Heteronomous Morality (Moral Realism) – children
judgement concern obeying the rules to uphold the law think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties of
and avoid guilt. Law is law. the world, removed from the control of people
- 4-7 years old
e.g., Crossing the pedestrian crossing or going on a full - consider the consequences, not the intentions
stop when the traffic light turned red. - “law is law”
Level III: Postconventional Morality (Morality of - Immanent Justice: concept that if a rule is broken,
Autonomous Moral Principles) (14-older yrs old) punishment will happen immediately
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
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- from 7-10 years old, children are in transition showing o Exosystem: family composition, place of residence,
some features of the first stage of moral reasoning and or parents’ employment, and larger events
some stages of the second ▪ Incorporates other formal and informal social
Autonomous Morality (Moral Relativism) – structures, which do not themselves contain the
becomes aware with the rules and laws created by child but indirectly influence them as these social
people, and in judging an action, they consider the structures affect one of the microsystem
intentions as well as the consequences ▪ Child is not involved and are external to their
- 10 years and older experience but nonetheless affect them anyway
- products of cooperative agreements o Macrosystem: overarching cultural patterns such as
dominants beliefs, ideologies, and economic and
political systems
▪ How cultural elements affect a child’s
Ecological Model by Bronfenbrenner development
o Chronosystem: dimension of time
▪ Consists of all environmental changes that occur
over the lifetime that influence development
▪ Including major life transitions and historical
events
▪ Non-normative events
o active
Sociocultural Theory by Vygotsky
o cognitive development is shaped by the sociocultural
context in which it occurs and grows out of
children’s interactions with the member of the
culture
o cognitive growth as collaborative process
o people learn through social interaction
o placed emphasis on Language
o adults or more advanced peers must help direct and
organize a child’s learning before the child can
master and internalize it
o Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): the gap
between what they are already able to do by
o child is not seen as just an outcome of development; themselves and what they can accomplish with
the child is an active shaper of development assistance
o to understand development, we must see the child o Scaffolding: supportive assistance with a task that
within the context of multiple environments parents, teachers, or others give a child
surrounding o Allow testers to offer hints to children who were
o Microsystem: everyday environment; interactions having trouble answering a question, thereby
with family, friends, etc. focusing on that child’s potential learning
▪ have direct contact with the child o active
▪ other people can influence the child and their Attachment by Ainsworth and Mahler
environment and can also change the beliefs and Ainsworth – Attachment Theory
actions of other people o Attachment – reciprocal, enduring emotional tie
▪ very personal and crucial for fostering and between an infant and a caregiver, each of whom
supporting the child’s development contributes to the quality of the relationship
o Mesosystem: linkages between home and school or o Strange Situation – by Mary Ainsworth; designed
between the family or peer groups (events that links to assess attachment patterns between infant and
the microsystems) adult
▪ Interaction between child microsystems Secure Attachment – flexible, resilient
#BLEPP
- Secure attachment in early development becomes a o Mutual Regulation – the ability of both infant and
foundation for psychological development later caregiver to respond appropriately and sensitively to
- grow up as secured adults, can speak about each other’s mental and emotional states
attachment relationships with feeling but will also be o Social Referencing – seeking emotional information
thoughtful and reflective to guide behavior
: balances dependency and exploration, Five Stages of Attachment Development
balances emotion and thought Stage 1 (birth to 3 months): Infants uses sucking,
- Parenting Style: Sensitive and Responsive rooting, grasping, smiling, etc. to maintain closeness
- low avoidance, low anxiety
with caregivers
Avoidant (Insecure) Attachment – outwardly Stage 2 (3 to 6 months): more responsive to familiar
unaffected by a caregiver leaving or returning
figures than to strangers (responsive to mama onle)
- Not distressed if caregiver leaves, do not reestablish
Stage 3 (6 to 9 months): infants seeks physical
contact when they return
proximity and contact with objects of attachment
- grow up as dismissing adults, attachment is devalued
(finding mama)
and dismissed by these adults with concomitant
Stage 4 (9 to 12 months): Infants form internal mental
emphasis on though separated from emotions
representation of object of attachment, including
- Parenting Style: Inconsistent, often unresponsive
expectations about caregiver’s typical responses to
- low anxiety, high avoidance
signals of distress (forming mental rep of objects of
Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment – generally
attachment)
anxious even before the caregiver leaves
Stage 5 (12 months and older): child uses variety of
- Cling to the caregiver then push them away when
behaviors to influence the behavior of the objects of
comforted
attachment in ways that will satisfy needs for safety and
- grow up as enmeshed adults (pre-occupied), cannot
closeness (papansin era)
turn their attention away from attachment, provide
Bowlby – Attachment Theory
contradictory, rapidly alternating views of their
attachment relationships accompanied by a gush of o Attachment Behavior System – a complex set of
vivid memories reflexes and signaling behaviors that bring about
- Parenting Style: rejecting-unresponsive or intrusive- caregiving responses from adults
overly stimulating (inconsistent) ▪ When the child is frightened or separated from the
- low avoidance, high anxiety mother, the attachment system is activated and the
Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment – lack a child will seek proximity or physical closeness to
cohesive strategy to deal with the stress of the strange the mother
situation; they show contradictory, repetitive, or ▪ The child is motivated to attain a sense of
misdirected behaviors; confused and afraid security, a subjective experience of safety and
- Strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or well-being
display certain specified behaviors such as extreme ▪ When the child feels secure, the attachment
fearfulness
system is deactivated and the exploratory system
- have psychopathological tendencies
is turned on
- Parenting Style: frightened and frightening
- high avoidance, high anxiety ▪ Attachment is a primary drive
o Children who were classified as securely attached o Principle of Monotropy – need to form attachment
were more likely to have better relationships with to one significant person
peers and teachers in later childhood than those o Internal Working Model of Attachment – through
classified as insecure repeated attachment experiences, the child develops
o According to Bowlby, attachment styles resulted expectations about the availability and
from repeated interactions with a caregiver responsiveness of the mother
o Stranger Anxiety – wariness of a person she does o Separation Anxiety – distress when a familiar
not know caregiver leaves her
o Separation Protest – crying when caregiver leaves Protest – upon the disappearance of the caregiver, the
o Babies react negatively to strangers by 8 or 9 months infant will cry, and will resist soothing from others
#BLEPP
Despair – when the separation is prolonged, the infant - In separation, the infant develops an understanding
becomes quiet, sad, passive, and apathetic of boundaries of the self
Detachment – infants become emotionally detached - Individuation marks the development of a sense of
from other people self
Mahler – Separation-Individuation Theory
o Psychological Birth – focused on independence, 1. Differentiation: occurs when the child first gains
how the child grows entirely dependent being to one awareness that he or she is separate from the mother
who is relatively independent, both physically and (5-10 months)
psychologically - hatching
2. Practicing: occurs when child becomes toddler,
o 1-3 years old
gaining motor skills that enable the child to explore
o Successful completion of the developmental stages
the world independently from his or her caregivers
in first few years of life results in separation and (10-16/18 months)
individuation - hastens the physical development and separation
o Separation – internal process of mental separation anxiety decreases
from the mother 3. Rapprochement: “backing off” from separation, the
o Individuation – developing self-concept child becomes anxious about separation from his
o the child’s developing capacity to represent the mother and regains closeness (18-24 months)
mother, allows his/her independence from the mother 4. Object Constancy: development of an internalized
o Children exist in a symbiotic phase until they reach mental model of the mother, which unconsciously
about 6 months of age accompanies and supports the child even when they
o They are unaware of their surroundings and others are physically separated (24+ months)
and only are cognizant of themselves as one with Identity Formation by Marcia
o James Marcia distinguished four categories that
their mothers
differ according to the presence or absence or crisis
o As the child matures, perception of his or her mother
and commitment
begins to evolve and the child internalizes the images
o Crisis – period of conscious decision making
of her
o Commitment – personal investment in an
o Disruptions in normal developmental trajectory
occupation or ideology
could lead to maladaptive behavior
o Represent the status of identity development at a
Normal Autistic Phase (0-1 month)
particular time, and they may change in any direction
- first weeks of life and shows little social
engagement as young people continue to develop
- infant is focused on himself/herself 4 types of Identity status
- uninterested in external stimuli Identity Achievement: crisis leading to commitment
- Primary Goal: achieve a state of equilibrium, while Foreclosure: commitment without crisis
lacking the understanding that the satisfaction needs - Result of exploring choices but accepting someone
may come from an external source else’s plans for her life
- as if they are inside their own egg shell - Uncritically accepted others’ opinions
Normal Symbiotic Phase (1-5 month) Moratorium: crisis with no commitment yet
- first 6 months of life, occurs when the child gains - Actively grappling with his identity and trying to
awareness of caregivers but has no sense of decide the path he wants his life to take
individuality - Exploration
- acknowledges the mother’s existence as the main Identity Diffusion: no commitment, no crisis
source of need-satisfaction - Not seriously considered options and has avoided
- egg extends to include the mother commitments
Separation-Individuation (5-24 months) Learning Theories based on Behaviorism and Social
- 4 or 5 months Learning
- child develop a sense of self, separated from the o Behaviorism – observed behavior as a predictable
mother response to experience
#BLEPP
o reacting to conditions or aspects of their environment - emphasizes personal involvement with people in
that find pleasing, painful, or threatening everyday situations
Classical Conditioning by Pavlov - learner has a new experience and interpret a previous
o Classical Conditioning: response to a stimulus is experience in a new way
evoked after repeated association with a stimulus that
normally elicits response “i am a girl but i think i like girls too…”
o Watson’s “Little Albert Experiment” Reflective Observation: reflects on the new
Operant Conditioning by Skinner experience in the light of their existing knowledge of
o Operant Conditioning: consequences of particular importance are any inconsistencies between
“operating” on the environment; reinforcements and experience and understanding
punishments - people understand ideas and situations from different
o Reinforcement: increasing the likelihood that the points of view
behavior will be repeated - rely on patience, objectivity, and careful judgment but
o Punishment: decreasing the likelihood of repetition would not necessarily take any action
o reinforcement is most effective when it immediately - reflects on the new experience
follows a behavior
o Extinguished: behavior returns to its original level “the thing is, guys don’t make my heart flutter. but, ugh,
when a response is no longer reinforced girls… they are so amazing…”
Social Learning Theory by Bandura Abstract Conceptualization: reflection gives rise to a
▪ Reciprocal Determinism: behaviorist sees the new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract
environment as the chief impetus for concept (the person has learned from their experience)
development and Bandura suggested that the - using theories, logic and ideas, rather than feelings, to
impetus for development is bidirectional understand problems or situations
▪ Behaviorism = stimulus > response - adapts their thinking or constructs new ideas based on
▪ Social Cognitive Theory = stimulus > response > experience and reflection
stimulus
▪ Observational Learning: people learn “the internet says i am homosexual because i like
appropriate social behavior chiefly by observing someone with the same gender as i am. i am a lesbian,
and imitating models – that is, by watching other i am a girl who is attracted to a fellow girl,”
people (usually whose behavior is perceived as Active Experimentation: newly created or modified
valued in their culture) concepts give rise to experimentation; applying their
▪ Social Cognitive Theory: cognitive processes are ideas to the world around them
at work as people observe models, learn chunks - learner would take a practical approach and be
of behavior, and mentally put the chunks together concerned with what really works, as opposed to
into complex new behavior patterns simply watch the situation
▪ Self-Efficacy: confidence in one’s ability - applies new ideas to real world
Sources of Self-Efficacy
Mastery of Tasks “i tried to kissed a girl and i never felt this feeling
Social Modeling before. i’d love to do that again with her,”
Social Persuasion o 4 Basic Learning Styles:
Physical and Emotional States Diverging: Concrete experience and Reflective
Experiential Learning Theory by Kolb observation
o “learning by doing” - tend to perform better in situations that call for
o Focuses on the best way to learn things is by actually generation of ideas
having experiences - prefer groups, listening with an open mind and
o Learning is the process whereby knowledge is receiving personalized feedback
created through the transformation of experience
Concrete Experience: new experience or situation, or “i like girls more than boys. they are so gorgeous and
a reinterpretation of existing experience in the light of amazing. am i feeling right?”
new concepts
#BLEPP
Assimilation: Abstract Conceptualization and o Ethology: study of the adaptive behaviors of animal
Reflective Observation species in natural contexts
- best at understanding wide range of information and o Evolutionary Psychology: apply Darwinian
putting it into concise, logical form principles to human behavior
- interested in ideas and abstract concepts o Law of Natural Selection as the principle of
- prefer reading, lectures, and exploring analytical survival of the fittest was proposed by Herbert
models Spencer
o active and reactive
“so technically, i am an homosexual being. i like girls, Social Role Theory
so i am lesbian. i don’t feel like a girl so i am o Social Role Theory – traces the process of
trangender, then?” socialization and personality development through
Converging: Abstract Conceptualization and Active the person’s participation in increasingly diverse and
Experimentation complex social roles
- best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories o Individual demonstrates an extension of the self
- prefer to deal with technical tasks and problems o Differ in 4 dimensions:
rather than with social issues a. Number of roles
- prefer to experiment with new ideas, simulations, b. Intensity of involvement
and lab experiments c. Time demands
d. Specificity of structure
“if i kiss this girl, would i like it? if i sleep with her, Developmental Principles
would it be different unlike sleeping with a guy?” Development is lifelong. Each period is affected by
Accommodating: Active Experimentation and what happened before and will affect what is to come.
Concrete Experience Development is Multidimensional. Development is
- enjoy carrying out plans and involving themselves in affected by multiple interacting dimensions such as
new and challenging experiences biological, psychological, and social dimensions.
- prefers to do field work, and test out different Development is Multidirectional. As people gain in
approaches to completing a project one area, they may lose some aspects as well.
Developmental Science is Multidisciplinary.
“i came out to my parents today and introduced my Psychologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers
girlfriend. i slept with her for the first on my birthday. all shares the same interest in unlocking the mysteries
it was amazing. but i wonder what would it feel like to of development.
sleep with a guy?” Relative Influences of Biology and Culture shift
Evolutionary Theory by Wilson over the life span (Contextual). Biological Abilities
o draws findings of anthropology, ecology, genetics, weaken with age, but cultural supports could help
ethology, and evolutionary psychology to explain the compensate with the loss.
adaptive, or survival, value of behavior for an Development Involves changing resource
individual or species allocations (involves Growth, Maintenance, and
o evolutionary explanation of animal behavior could regulation of loss). Resources may be used for growth,
be applied to the study of human behavior for maintenance or recovery, or for dealing with loss
o human nature and culture are product of genetic when maintenance and recovery is not possible. In an
evolution instance, during childhood, all resources are used for
o influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory, whereas the growth and nurture. During Midlife, resources are used
organisms vary and individual differences can be for maintenance and preparation for loss.
inherited Development shows plasticity. Many abilities can be
o some organisms, because of their particular improved with training and practice.
characteristics, will survive and hence reproduce at Development is influenced by historical and cultural
higher rates than others context. Each person develops with multiple contexts.
o Natural Selection: the differential survival and
reproduction of different variants of members of a
species and is the tool the natural world uses to shape
evolutionary processes
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Developmental Issues and Tasks (30) Anencephaly Absence of brain No treatment
Critical Issues during Prenatal Development tissue
Chromosomal Abnormalities Polycystic Enlarged Kidney
Name Description Treatment Kidney Disease Kidneys Transplant
Down Syndrome Extra copy of Surgery, Alpha Cirrhosis of the No treatment
(Trisomy 21) chromosome 21 SPED antitrypsin liver in early
Extra X Deficiency infancy
Klinefelter Hormone
Chromosome Alpha Severe Anemia; Frequent
Syndrome Therapy
(XXY) Thalassemia nearly all die Blood
Abnormality in SPED, soon after birth Transfusion
Fragile X
X chromosome Speech Beta Severe Anemia; Blood
Syndrome
causes ID Therapy Thalassemia fatal in Transfusions
Turner Missing X (Cooley’s adolescence or
Hormone
Syndrome chromosome for Anemia) Young adulthood
Therapy
(Monosomy X) females Duchenne Males with No treatment
XYY Syndrome Muscular muscle
Extra Y
(Jacob’s No treatment Dystrophy weakness, minor
chromosome
Syndrome) mental
Edward’s retardation
Extra copy of
Syndrome o Anoxia – oxygen shortage
chromosome 18
(Trisomy 18) ▪ Could be umbilical cord becomes pinched or
Patau’s tangled at birth
Extra copy of
Syndrome ▪ Could also be the position during birth (breech
chromosome 13
(Trisomy 13) position)
Gene-Linked Abnormalities ▪ Can initially cause poor reflexes, seizures, heart
Cystic Fibrosis Overproduction Physical rate irregularities, and breathing difficulties
of mucus in the Therapy ▪ Can also lead so Cerebral Palsy – difficulty
lungs and
controlling muscle movements
digestive tract
▪ Increases the risk of learning or intellectual
Diabetes Does not produce Insulin
enough insulin disabilities and speech difficulties
Hemophilia Delayed blood Blood o Low Birth Weight Infants – weigh less than 5
clotting transfusions pounds and 8 ounces at birth
Huntington’s CNS deteriorates ▪ Very Low birth Weight – less than 3 pounds 4
producing ounces
problem in ▪ Extremely Low Birth – less than 2 pounds
muscles and o Pre-term Infants – born three weeks or more before
mental decline pregnancy reach full term (before the completion of
Phenylketonuria Build up of Special Diet 37 weeks of gestation)
Phenylalanine in o Small for Date Infants (Small for Gestational Age
the body Infants) – those whose birth weight is below normal
Sickle-Cell Limits body Penicillin, when the length of pregnancy is considered
Anemia oxygen supply Antibiotics, o Progestin – might help in reducing preterm birth
Pain Reliever
o Extremely Preterm – born less than 28 weeks
Spina Bifida Incompletely Surgery
gestation
closed spinal
canal o Very Preterm – less than 33 weeks
Tay-Sachs Accumulation of Medication, o Kangaroo Care – involves skin-to-skin contact in
Disease lipids in the NS Special Diet which the baby, wearing only diaper, is held upright
#BLEPP
against the parent’s bare chest to help stabilize the o Omega-E, DHA, Folic Acid for the development of
preterm’s heartbeat, temp, and breathing nervous system
o One condition commonly faced by preterm babies is o Results to fetal growth restriction and low birth
Respiratory Distress Syndrome wherein there is a weight (5 pounds, 8 ounces = 2.5kg)
lack of surfactant (lung-coating substance) that keeps o Moderate exercise is recommended to reduce back
air sacs from collapsing pain, risks for gestational diabetes and etc.
o Postmature Babies – tend to be long and this o Spina Bifida – neural tube fails to close, part of the
because they have kept growing in the womb but spinal cord is not fully encased in the protective
have had an insufficient blood supply toward the end covering of the spinal column
of gestation ▪ Neurological problems
o Sudden Infant Death Syndrome – crib death; o Anencephaly – lethal defect in which main portion
sudden death of an infant under age 1 which cause of of the brain above the brain stem failed to develop
o Neural tube defects occur 25-29 days after
death remains unexplained
conception and more common due to deficient in
Critical Issues related to physical, cognitive, socio-
folic acid
emotional development during Prenatal Development
o Thalidomide – used to relieve morning sickness
o Miscarriages – short-lived pregnancies ▪ caused stunted limbs, facial deformities, and
▪ Spontaneous Abortion (Miscarriage) – defective organs
expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that is ▪ treatment for AIDS, tuberculosis, and cancer
unable to survive outside the womb o Tobacco – higher risks of miscarriage, prematurity,
▪ Less than 20 weeks low birth weight, cleft lips, and cleft palates
o Stillbirth – miscarriage occurred after 20 weeks of ▪ Restricts blood flow to the fetus which reduces
gestation (approx. 5 months) the levels of growth factors, oxygen, and nutrients
o Males are more likely to be spontaneously aborted or that reach the fetus
to be stillborn ▪ CNS impairment
o Teratogen – environmental agent that can interfere ▪ Infants are more irritable and score lower on
with normal prenatal development standard assessments of behavioral functioning
▪ Effects are worst during the critical period, when ▪ Higher risks of respiratory infections and
breathing difficulties
the organs are developing rapidly
▪ Higher risk for SIDS
▪ The greater the level of exposure and the longer ▪ Mild cognitive difficulties and to conduct and
the exposure to teratogen, the more likely it is that behavior problems
serious damage will occur ▪ Maternal smoking was identified to be the most
▪ Susceptibility to harm is influenced by unborn important factor for low-birth weight babies
child’s and mother’s genetic makeup ▪ Tobacco also increases the risks of miscarriage,
▪ The effects of teratogen depend on the quality of growth retardation, stillbirth, SIDS, etc.
both the prenatal and the postnatal environment o Alcohol – disrupt hormone functions of the placenta
o Teratology – field of study that investigates the ▪ Disrupts the normal process of neuronal
causes of birth defects migration, leading to several outcomes depending
o Critical Period – a time during which the on the severity of the effects
developing organism is specially sensitive to ▪ Fetal Alcohol Syndrome – characterized by a
environmental influences, positive or negative combination of retarded growth, face and body
o Women of normal weight are less likely to have birth malformations, and disorders of the central
complications nervous system
o Overweight women have risk of having longer ▪ FAS children are smaller and lighter than normal
deliveries, need more health care services, and their physical growth lags behind
gestational diabetes, cesarean delivery, birth defects ▪ High risks in CNS damage
etc. ▪ Children who were exposed prenatally with
alcohol but do not have FAS experience Fetal
#BLEPP
Alcohol Effects or Alcohol-Related o Exposure to Mercury could cause blindness
Neurodevelopmental Disorder o Older fathers may be significant source of birth
o Cocaine – causes spontaneous abortion and defects due to damaged or deteriorated sperm such as
premature detachment of the placenta dwarfism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, ASD
▪ Contributes to fetal malnourishment, retarded o Prenatal cell-free DNA Scans – fetal DNA is
growth, and low birth weight extracted from the mother’s blood and tested for
▪ Deficits on several measures of information-
early detection of genetic problems
processing and sensory motor skills
o Infertility – not being able to get pregnant even after
▪ Opioids are associated with small babies, fetal
a year of trying
death, preterm labor, and aspiration of meconium
o Another set of drugs that are harmful for pregnant
▪ Babies born with drug-addicted mothers tend to
women: Antibiotics, certain Barbiturates, Opiates,
experience withdrawal once they are born and no
Acutane
longer receive drugs
Developmental Issues during Childhood, Adolescence,
▪ Neonate Abstinence Syndrome – sleep
and Adulthood
disturbance, tremors, difficulty regulating the
Infancy and Toddlerhood
body, irritability, crying etc. o For infants, delayed speech due to lack of interaction
▪ Caffeine has slightly increased risk for with the caregiver and delayed cognition due to lack
miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight of stimulation
babies o According to Erik Erikson, as babies, our first
o Rubella almost certain to cause deafness and heart challenge involves forming basic sense of Trust
defects to babies versus Mistrust
o Toxoplasmosis – caused by parasite in the bodies of o Ideally, babies develop a balance between trust and
cattle, sheep, and pigs, and in the intestinal tracts of mistrust
cats that causes fetal brain damage, severely o If trust predominates, as it should, children develop
impaired eyesight, seizures, miscarriage, etc. Hope and the belief that they can fulfill their needs
o Diabetic mothers are most likely to have babies that and obtain their desires
have heart and neural tube defects Approximate Crisis Virtue
o Stress and anxiety have been associated with more Age Developed
irritable and active temperament in newborns Infancy (0-18 Trust vs. Hope
o Chronic stress can result in preterm delivery months) Mistrust
o Depression may cause premature birth or Toddler (18 Autonomy vs. Will
developmental delays months – 36 Shame/Doubt
o Chance of miscarriage or stillbirth rises with months)
maternal age o Maladaptive Tendency for Infancy: Sensory
o Adolescent Mothers tend to have premature or Maladjustment – overly trusting and gullible,
underweight babies unrealistic, spoiled
o Includes air pollution, radiation, chemicals o Malignant Tendency: Withdrawal – never trust
o Fetal exposure to low level of environmental toxins anyone, paranoid, neurotic, depressive
may result to asthma, allergies, lupus o Significant Person: Mother
o X-Rays could triple the risk of having full-term, low- o Maladaptive Tendency for Toddler:
birth weight babies Impulsiveness – shameless willfulness that leads to
o Exposure to lead, marijuana, tobacco, radiation, jump into things without proper consideration,
pesticides, etc. may result in abnormal or poor reckless, inconsiderate
quality sperm o Malignant Tendency: Compulsiveness –
o Babies who fathers had diagnostic x-rays within the perfectionism, rule follower, anal, constrained
year prior to conception or had a high lead exposure o Significant person: Parents
at work tends to have low birth weight and slowed o Successful in this stage = hopeful child
fetal growth o Failed = withdrawn child
#BLEPP
o Self-Concept – our image of ourselves; it describes o Maladaptive Tendency: Ruthlessness – don’t care
what we know and feel about ourselves and guides who they step in just to achieve their goals
our actions o Malignant Tendency: Inhibition – too much guilt
o By at least 3 months, infants pay attention to their to do anything so nothing would happen
mirror image o Significant Persons: Family
o Pretend Play – an early indication of the ability to o Theory of Sexual Selection – the selection of sexual
understand other’s mental states and their own partners is a response to differing reproductive
o Usage of person pronouns (me, mine) usually at 20- pressures early men and women confronted in the
24 months study for survival
o Socialization – process by which children develop o Identification – adoption of characteristics, beliefs,
habits, skills, values, and motives that make them attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the
responsible and productive members of the society same sex
o Children obey societal or parental dictates because o According to Kohlberg, Children actively search for
they believe them to be right and true cues about gender in their social world
o The eventual goal is the development of conscience o Gender Constancy – a child’s realization that his or
Situational Compliance – extra assistance provided her gender will always be the same
by their parents’ reminder and prompts to complete the Gender Identity – awareness of one’s own gender and
task that of others, which typically occurs ages 2 and 3
- only in the presence of the parents Gender Stability – awareness that gender does not
Committed Compliance – they were committed to change
following request and could do so without their parents Gender Constancy – the realization that a girl remains
direct intervention a girl even if she has a short haircut and plays with
- even without the parents trucks, typically occurs between ages 3 and 7
Receptive Cooperation – eager willingness to o Gender-Schema Theory – it views children as
cooperate harmoniously with a parent, not only in actively extracting knowledge about gender from
disciplinary actions, but in variety of daily interactions their environment before engaging in gender-typed
o (Freud) In Freud’s second psychosexual behavior
development stage, Anal Stage, it stated how the ▪ Place more emphasis on the influence of culture
development of children on this stage is focused on ▪ Children match their behavior to their culture’s
controlling bowel movements. view of what boys and girls are supposed to be
▪ Fixations of this stage leads to Anal-Retentive and do
and Anal-Expulsive Individuals o According to Walter Mischel, children acquire
▪ Anal Retentive: obsessed with orderliness and gender roles by imitating models and being rewarded
tidiness due to strict potty training for gender-appropriate behavior
▪ Anal-Expulsive: very messy and disorganized o Other issues: Sleeping problems, bedwetting,
adults due to lax potty training malnutrition/obesity, food allergies, oral health,
Early childhood accidents
o Preschool children can do-and want to do-more and o Other cognitive issues: centration, egocentrism,
more. At the same time, they are learning that some conservation, usage of media, parenting styles,
of the things they want to do meet social approval, relationships with other family members, aggression,
whereas others do not prosocial behavior, fearfulness
Approximate Crisis Virtue Middle and Late Childhood
Age Developed o Representational Systems: broad, inclusive self-
Play Age (3-5 Initiative versus Purpose concepts that integrate various aspects of the self
yrs) Guilt
o She can compare her real self with her ideal self and
o Purpose – the courage to envision and pursue goals
can judge how well she measures up to social
without being unduly inhibited by guilt or fear of
standards in comparison with others
punishment
#BLEPP
o According to Erikson, in the event that children are issues are worth arguing about and what strategies
unable to obtain the praise of adults or peers in their can be effective
lives, or lack motivation and self-esteem, they may o The more satisfied a mother is with her employment
develop a feeling of low self-worth, thus develop a status, the more effective she is likely to be a parent
sense of inferiority o Tho poverty can harm children’s development, high-
Approximate Crisis Virtue quality parenting can buffer children from potential
Age Developed consequences of poverty
School Age Age Industry vs. Competency o Children tend to do better in families with two
(5-13 yrs) Inferiority continuously married parents than in cohabiting,
o Developing a sense of industry involves learning divorced, single-parent, or step-families
how to work hard to achieve goals o Parent’s relationship, the quality of their parenting,
o Maladaptive Tendency: Narrow Virtuosity – and their ability to create a favorable family
children that aren’t allowed to “be children” and push atmosphere affect children’s adjustment more than
into one area of competence their marital status does
o Malignant Tendency: Inertia – suffer from o Children whose parents later divorce show more
inferiority complexes anxiety, depression, or antisocial behavior prior to
o Significant Persons: Neighborhood and School the divorce than those parents who stay married
o As children grow, they are more aware of their own o Children do better with joint custody
and other people’s feelings o Co-parenting has been consistently linked to positive
o Children are typically aware of feeling shame and child outcomes
pride and a clearer idea of the difference between o Most adopted children fall within the normal range
guilt and shame of development
o Emotional Self-Regulation – voluntary control of o Children adopted after the age 1 were more likely to
emotions, attention, and behavior show lower school achievement
o Children tends to become more empathetic and more o Having a warm and supportive sibling relationship is
inclined to prosocial behaviors associated with better adjustment and better emotion
o Gender Stereotypes – broad categories that reflect regulation
general impressions and beliefs about males and o Sisters are higher in sibling intimacy than brothers or
females mixed-sex dyads
o Coregulation – children and parents share power o Peer groups helps children learn how to adjust their
o The amount of autonomy parents provide affects needs and desires to those of others, when to yield,
how their children feel about them and when to stand firm
o Children are more apt to follow their parents’ wishes o Children can gauge their abilities and gain a clearer
when they believe the parents are fair and concerned sense of self-efficacy
about the child’s welfare o Prejudice – unfavorable attitudes towards outsiders
o Parents of school-age children tends to use inductive o Children can be negatively affected by
techniques as a form of discipline discrimination
o Children exposed to high levels of family conflict are o Girls are more likely to engage in cross-gender
more likely to show a variety of responses that can activities
include internalizing or externalizing behaviors Positive Nomination – asking children who they like
Internalizing behaviors – anxiety, fear, depression- to play with, they like the most, or who they think
anger turned inward other kids like the most
Externalizing behaviors – aggression, fighting, Negative Nomination – opposite of positive
disobedience, hostility nomination
o If family conflict is constructive, it can help children o Sociometric Popularity – measures that is
see the need for rules and standards and learn what composed of positive nominations, negative
nominations or no nominations
#BLEPP
Average children – receive an average no of both ▪ Inability to develop fidelity may have an unstable
positive and negative nominations sense of self, insecure, and fail to plan for
Neglected Children – infrequently nominated as themselves and the future
bestie but not really disliked o A man is not capable of real intimacy until he has
Rejected Children – disliked by peers achieved a stable identity, whereas women define
Controversial Children – frequently nominated both themselves through marriage and motherhood
bestie and most disliked o Crisis – a period of conscious decision-making
Popular Children – frequently nominated as bestie ▪ Process of grappling with what to believe and
and rarely disliked by peers who to be (Erikson)
o Unpopular children can make friends but they tend
o Commitment – a personal investment in an
to have fewer friends and they prefer younger ones
occupation or ideology
o Instrumental Aggression – aimed at achieving an
o Maladaptive Tendency: Fanaticism – believes that
objective
his “ways” are the only ways
▪ Proactive (Cold Aggression)
o Malignant Tendency: Repudiation – repudiate
▪ View force and coercion as effective ways to get
(reject) their membership in the world of adults and,
what they want
even more, they repudiate their need for an identity
▪ Very common in kids
o Sexual Identity – seeing oneself as a sexual being,
o Hostile Aggression – intended to hurt another person
recognizing one’s sexual orientation, and forming
▪ Reactive (hot aggression)
romantic or sexual attachments
▪ Direct Aggression
o Sexual Orientation – whether the person is attracted
o Hostile Attributional Bias – quickly conclude, in
to person of other sex (Heterosexual), same sex
ambiguous situations that others were acting with ill
(Bisexual), or of both sexes (Bisexual)
intent and are likely to strike out in retaliation or self-
o Brains of gay men and straight women are more
defense
symmetrical, whereas lesbians and straight men, the
Adolescence
right hemisphere is slightly larger
o Identity – coherent conception of the self, made up
o Transgender – biological sex at birth and gender
of goals, values, and beliefs to which the person is
identity are not the same
solidly committed
o Transsexual – people who seek medical assistance
▪ Forms as young people resolve three major
to permanently transition to their preferred gender
issues: the choice of an occupation, the adoption
o Two major concerns about adolescent sexual activity
of values to live by, and the development of a
are the risks of contracting STIs and pregnancy
satisfying sexual identity
o Juvenile Delinquency – adolescent who breaks the
Approximate Crisis Virtue
law or engages in behavior considered as illegal
Age Developed
Adolescence Identity vs. Fidelity o Antisocial behaviors tends to run in families
(14-20 yrs) Identity/Role o Individuals who have low arousal levels may be
Confusion prone to antisocial behaviors as a form of sensation
o Adolescence is a time-out period (Psychosocial seeking to achieve arousal levels a normal person
Moratorium), which is the ideal for the development experiences
of identity, allowing young people the opportunity to o An early onset type (beginning by age 11) tends to
search for commitments to which they could be lead to chronic juvenile delinquency in adolescence
faithful o Milder late onset type, tends to arise temporarily in
o Fidelity – sustained loyalty, faith, or a sense of adolescence
belonging to a loved one, friends or companions o Parents of children who become chronically
▪ Identification with a set of values, an ideology, a antisocial may have failed to reinforce good
religion, a political movement, or an ethnic group behaviors in early childhood and may have been
harsh or inconsistent with their discipline
#BLEPP
Young Adulthood o Maladaptive Tendency: Promiscuity – tendency to
o Emerging adulthood offers Moratorium – time out become intimate too freely, too easily (marupok)
from developmental pressures and allow young o Malignant Tendency: Exclusion – tendency to
people the freedom to experiment various roles and isolate oneself from everyone
lifestyles o Timing-of-Events Model – holds that the course of
o Recentering – name for the process that underlies development depends on when certain events occur
the shift to an adult identity in people’s lives
Stage 1: Beginning o Normative Life Events (Normative Age-Graded
Individual is still embedded in the family of origin, Events) – those typically happen at certain times of
but expectations for self-reliance and self-directedness life
begin to increase o Social Clock – society’s norms for appropriate
Stage 2: During timing of life events
Individual remains connected to but no longer o Trait Models – psychological models that focus on
embedded within the family of origin the measurement and examination of different traits
Stage 3: Usually by Age 30
o McCrae’s Five-Factor Model – Openness,
Marked independence from the family of origin and
Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness,
commitment to a career, a partner, and possibly
children Neuroticism
o Moratorium – self-conscious crisis that ideally o People’s personalities remain similar does not mean
leads to a resolution and identity achievement status no change occurs
o Many young adults seem to do little active, conscious
deliberation, instead of taking passive approach or
taking the lead from the parents
o Positive parent-child relationships during early
adolescence predict warmer and less conflicted o Typological Approach – seeks to complement and
relationships with both parents when children reach expand trait research by looking at personality
age 26 functioning whole
o The view that these young adults who “fail to o Ego-Resilient – well-adjusted, self-confident,
launch” and do not move out of their parents’ homes articulate, attentive, helpful, Cooperative, task-
are selfish slackers who refuse to grow up is largely focused
inaccurate o Overcontrolled – shy, quiet, anxious, dependable,
o Normative-Stage Models – theoretical approaches tend to keep thoughts to themselves and withdraw
that hold that adults follow a basic sequence of age- from conflict, subject to depression
related psychosocial changes o Undercontrolled – active, energetic, impulsive,
Approximate Crisis Virtue stubborn, and easily distracted
Age Developed Three Attachment Styles
Young Intimacy vs. Love Secure – have positive views in relationships, find it
Adulthood (21- Isolation easy to get close to others, and are not overly concerned
39 yrs) about romantic relationships
o According to Erikson, if adults cannot make deep Avoidant – hesitant about getting involved in romantic
personal commitments to others, they risk becoming relationships and once they do, they distance
themselves to their partners
overly isolated and self-absorbed
Anxious – demand closeness, less trusting, more
o As young adults work to resolve conflicting demands
emotional, jealous, and possessive
for intimacy and competitiveness, they develop an
Middle Adulthood
ethical sense, which Erikson considered a marker of o 6 Emotional Stages of Retirement:
adulthood Pre-Retirement: Planning the retirement
o Love – a mutual devotion between partners who have - Critical time for setting up for success in retirement
chosen to share their lives and have children
#BLEPP
- Imagining ideal retirement, take stock for health, ▪ Associated with prosocial behaviors
assess finances, building support network, decide when o Care – widening commitment to take care of
to retire persons, products, and the ideas one has learned to
- begin to think seriously about the life they want for take care for
themselves in retirement and whether they are Approximate Crisis Virtue
financially on track to achieve it Age Developed
Retirement – makes the transition from full-time work Middle Generativity vs. Care
to retirement they’ve planned Adulthood (40- Stagnation
Honeymoon Phase: Freedom 65 yrs)
- Enjoy newfound freedom and retirement o People who do not find generativity run the risk of
- positive phase when retirees get to enjoy the fruits of becoming self-absorbed, self-indulgent, and stagnant
a lifetime of labor
o Stagnation – disconnected from the communities
- Can also be a time of anxiety and uncertainty because
because of their failure to contribute
they feel purposeless
Disenchantment Phase: What to do next? o Women report higher generativity than men
- Feel restless, aimless, and bored o For men, having a child early is associated with
- Feeling worn out because of aimlessly trying to fill greater generativity
time with anything o Maladaptive Tendency: Overextension – they no
- Find clarity and do introspection work to connect with longer allow themselves to relax and rest
self and discover retirement purpose o Malignant Tendency: Rejectivity – no longer
- Have realistic expectations, be proactive, and set life participating or contributing in the society
goals o According to Levinson, the transition to middle
- they may experience some of the emotional adulthood lasts about five years and requires the
downsides of retirements such as loneliness, adult male to come to grips with the four major
disillusionment, and a feeling of uselessness conflicts: (1) being young vs old; (2) being
Reorientation: The New You destructive versus being constructive; (3) being
- Redefining yourself and finding new purpose in
masculine vs. feminine; (4) being attached to others
retirement
- Reassessing priorities vs. separated from them
- Great opportunity for self-discovery o Midlife as a crisis, arguing that middle-aged adults is
- people try to figure who they are and map their place suspended between past and the future, trying to cope
in the world as a retiree with this gap that threatens life’s continuity
Stability Phase: Retirement Routine o Midlife Crisis – changes in personality and lifestyle
- Growth and contentment with new identity in during middle forties
retirement, and finding equilibrium ▪ Many people realize that they will not be able to
- Settling into a new normal fulfill the dreams of their youth, or that
- Accepted retirement identity and created a daily fulfillment of their own mortality
routine that works for them ▪ People who do have crisis at midlife generally
o In middle adulthood, conscientiousness is the highest also have crises at other times in their lives as well
maybe due to result of work experiences ▪ Manifestation of a neurotic personality rather
o However, unemployed ones will show decrease in than developmental phase
agreeableness and conscientiousness o Turning Point – psychological transition that
o Middle-aged men who remarry tend to become less involves significant change or transformation in the
neurotic, those who divorce decrease in extraversion perceived meaning, purpose, or direction of a
o Generativity – involved finding meaning through person’s life
contributing to society and leaving a legacy for future ▪ Triggered by major life events, normative
generations changes, or a new understanding of past
▪ Parenting, teaching, mentorship, productivity, experience
self-generation or self-development
▪ “Maintenance of the work”
#BLEPP
o Midlife Review – involves recognizing the ▪ Filial Crisis: adults learn to balance love and duty
finiteness of life and can be a time of taking stock, to their parents with autonomy in a two-way
discovering new insights about the self, and spurring relationship
midcourse corrections in the design and trajectory of ▪ Sandwich Generation: caught in squeeze between
one’s life the competing needs of their own children and the
o Developmental Deadlines – time constraints on emerging needs of their parents
o Ego Resiliency – the ability to adapt flexibly and ▪ Caregiver Burnout: a physical, mental, and
resourcefully to potential source of stress emotional exhaustion that can affect adults who
o Identity Process Theory (IPT) – physical care for aged relatives
characteristics, cognitive abilities, and personality ▪ Respite Care: giving caregivers some time off
traits are incorporation into identity schemas (Susan ▪ Relationships with siblings who remain in contact
Krauss Whitbourne) can be central to psychological well-being in
▪ Assimilation: interpretation of new information midlife
via existing cognitive structure o Grandmothers have closer, warmer, more
▪ Accommodation: involves changing cognitive affectionate relationships with their grandchildren
structures to more closely align with what is o Kinship Care: grandparents that provides care but
encountered don’t become foster parents or gain custody, have no
▪ Identity Assimilation: involves holding onto a legal status and few rights
consistent sense of self in the face of new Late Adulthood
experiences that do not fit the current Young Old (60-75)
understanding of the self Old-Old (75-85)
▪ Identity Accommodation: involves adjusting the Oldest Old (85 and older)
identity schema to fit new experiences Octogenarian (80s)
▪ Identity Balance: stable sense of self while Centenarian (Over 100 yrs old)
adjusting their self-schemas to incorporate new o The optimistic view of oldies seems to help protect
information older adults against the long-term effects of serious
o Narrative Psychology – views the development of health threats like stroke
self as a continuous process of constructing one’s life o Frail Elderly – older adults who cannot care for
story themselves
o Generativity Scripts – feature redemption and o Most common chronic health conditions:
associated with psychological well-being Hypertension, Arthritis
o Increase in positive emotions through early o Identical twins are more similar in length of life than
adulthood to old age fraternal twins, and adults who parents and
o Empty Nest – occurs when the youngest child leaves grandparents were long lived are also likely to live
home longer
o In a good marriage, departure of children generally Theories of Biological Aging
increases marital satisfaction Hayflick Limit – cells simply lose their capacity to
o Revolving Door Syndrome or Boomerang replicate themselves
Phenomenon – returning to parent’s home, - Telomeres become shorter as the cell divides
- cells can divide for no more than 50 times
sometimes with their own families
Programmed Senescence Theory – aging also may be
o Prolonged Parenting may lead to intergenerational
influenced by specific genes “switching off” after age-
tension when it contradicts parent’s normative related losses occur (Epigenesis)
expectations - age-related physical declines result from species-
▪ Positive relationships with parents contribute to a specific genes for aging
strong sense of self and to emotional well-being - prevents older, presumably less fit from becoming
at midlife parents at an age when they are unlikely to be able to
raise offspring to maturity
#BLEPP
Endocrine Theory – biological clocks act through Activity Theory – psychologically and physically
hormones to control the pace of aging healthiest response to old age is to maintain the
Immunological Theory – programmed decline in greatest possible level of activity and involvement in
immune system functions leads to increased greatest possible number of roles
vulnerability to infectious disease and thus to aging and – the more active older people are, the better they age
death Disengagement Theory – aging has three aspects:
Evolutionary Theory – Aging is an evolved trait thus shrinkage of life space, increased individuality,
genes that promote reproduction are selected at higher acceptance of these changes
rates than genes that extend lives – normal part of aging involves gradual reduction in
Variable-Rate Theories – aging is the results of social involvement and greater preoccupation with the
random processes that vary from person to person self
(Error theories) Continuity Theory – primary means by which elders
Wear-and-Tear Theory – cells and tissues have vital adjust to aging is engaging in the same kinds of
parts that wear out activities that interested and challenged them in their
Free-Radical Theory – Accumulated damage from earlier years
oxygen radicals causes cells and eventually organs to – people’s need to maintain connection between past
stop functioning and present is emphasized, and activity is viewed as
Rate-of-Living Theory – the greater an organism’s important, not for its own sake but because it
rate of metabolism, the shorter its life span represents continuation of previous lifestyle
Autoimmune Theory – immune system becomes Selective Optimization with Compensation –
confused and attacks its own body cells involves developing abilities that allow for maximum
Cross-Linking Theory – occurs more often in cell gain as well as developing abilities that compensate
proteins of older adults for decline and could lead to loss
- undesirable chemical bonds form between proteins - Older adults conserve resources by selecting
and fats which cannot assume the correct shape for meaningful goals, optimizing the resources they have
proper function, leading to effects such as wrinkling of to achieve it, and compensating for the losses by using
the skin and arterial rigidity resources in alternative ways to achieve their goals
o For Erik Erikson, the crowning achievement of late o Stability declines in late adulthood
adulthood is Ego Integrity or integrity of the self – o Increases in agreeableness, self-confidence, warmth,
need to evaluate and accept their lives so as to accept emotional stability, and conscientiousness and
death declines in neuroticism, social vitality, and openness
Approximate Crisis Virtue to experience
Age Developed o Why do people show normative changes in
Old Age (65- Ego Integrity vs. Wisdom personality characteristics? Some researchers argue
older) Despair that these processes are driven primarily by intrinsic
o Wisdom – informed and detached concern with life genetic differences between people that unfold over
itself in the face of death itself time
▪ Accepting one has lived, without major regrets o Personality traits influence behavior, and behavior
o Maladaptive Tendency: Presumption – presumes influences health
ego integrity without actually facing the difficulties o In general, older adults have fewer mental disorders
of old age and are happier and more satisfied with life than
o Malignant Tendency: Disdain – contempt of life, younger adults
one’s own or anyone’s o Happiness tends to be high in early adulthood,
o Reminiscence – thinking about the past – necessary declines until people reach 50 years of age, and then
part of achieving ego integrity and thus an important tends to rise again until 85
aspect of old age and preparation for death o As people get older, they tend to seek out activities
o Life Review – evaluative process in which elders and people that give them emotional gratification
make judgments about their past behaviors o They are also better at regulating emotions
#BLEPP
o Dendritic loss at the neuronal level clearly o Five broad categories of resources that help
contributes substantially to the general slowing of determine how well a person adjusts to retirement:
health, with arthritic changes in joints and loss of 1. Individual attributes such as health and financial
elasticity in the muscles status
o There is a shift in sleep patterns in old age – they 2. Pre-retirement job-related variables such as job
wake up more frequently in the night and decreased stress
REM sleep 3. Family-related variables such as marriage quality
o They are more likely to go to bed early and wake up and dependents
early 4. Retirement transition-related variables
o Older adults may feel hungry all the time and may 5. Postretirement activities
overeat o Volunteering during retirement has been positively
o The loss of stamina clearly arises in large part from associated with good health and negatively
changes in the cardiovascular system associated with depression, functional limitations,
o Gradual loss of the sense of balance, which is at least and mortality
partly attributable to the effects of aging on white o Aging In Place – staying in their own home
matter in the parts of the brain that control balance o Group living arrangements for Older Adults
and motor function a. Retirement Hotel
o Older adults also tend to have more difficulty with b. Retirement Community
switching attention c. Shared Housing
o Sensory Memory – brief storage of sensory d. ECHO (Elder Cottage Housing Opportunity)
information Housing
o Working Memory – short-term storage of e. Congregate Housing
information being actively process f. Assisted-Living Facility
o Tasks that require only rehearsal, show a little g. Foster-Care Home
decline h. Continuing Care Retirement Community
o Tasks that requires reorganization or elaboration Critical Issues concerning death and bereavement
show greater falloff o Clinical Death – few minutes after the heart stopped
o Episodic Memory – linked to specific events; most pumping
likely to deteriorate with age o Brain Death – a person no longer has reflexes or any
o Semantic Memory – consists of meanings, facts, response to vigorous external stimuli and no
and concepts accumulated over lifetime learning; electrical activity in the brain
little decline o Social Death – when other people treat a deceased
o Procedural Memory – motor skills and habits that person like a corpse
once learned; relatively unaffected by age o Hospice Care – personal, patient- and family-
o Language problems are probably results of the centered, compassionate care for the terminally ill
problems accessing and retrieving information from o Palliative Care – includes relief of pain and
the memory suffering, controlling of symptoms, alleviation of
o Dysfunction in frontal lobes and hippocampus may stress, and attempts to maintain a satisfactory quality
cause false memories of life
o Older adults seems to have difficulty encoding new o Terminal Drop or Terminal Decline – specifically
episodic memories because of difficulties in forming to a widely observed decline in cognitive abilities
and later recalling a coherent and cohesive episode shortly before death
o Storage also deteriorate to the point retrieval o Near-Death Experience – often involving a sense of
becomes difficult being out of the body or sucked into a tunnel and
o Retirement is a single event but a dynamic visions of bright lights or mystical encounters
adjustment process that is best conceptualized as a
form of decision making
#BLEPP
▪ Linked to stimulation or damage of various brain o Adjusting to loss is more difficult if a child had a
areas, most notably in bilateral frontal and troubled relationship with the person who died
occipital areas o Children do not understand death, but they
▪ Generally experienced as positive as a result of understand loss
the release of endorphins o Often, teens turn to peers for support
o Grief – emotional response that generally follows o Young adults will find their entire world collapsing
closely on the heels of death at once when they knew they are dying instead of
o Bereavement – response to the loss of some whom dealing with other issues
a person feels close o Middle-Aged and Older adults are more prepared
o Grief Work – working out of psychological issues with death
connected with grief often takes the following path: o Terror Management Theory – human’s unique
1. Shock and Disbelief understanding of death, in concern with self-
2. Preoccupation with the memory of the dead preservation needs and capacity for fear, results in
person common emotional and psychological responses
3. Resolution when mortality, or thoughts of death are made salient
o Recovery Pattern – mourner goes high to low ▪ One common response to thoughts of death is to
distress become more committed to a cultural worldview
o Delayed Grief – moderate or elevated initial grief, (religion)
and symptoms worsen over time ▪ High self-esteem should buffer people against
o Chronic Grief – distressed for a long time anxiety and fear over death
Dual-Process Model (Stroebe & Schut, 1999) ▪ High self-esteem = reduced anxiety regarding
Confrontation – confront their loss and actively grieve death
Restoration – focus on moving forward ▪ Seeking comfort from loved ones is a common
Multiple Variations (Bonano et al., 2011) response in human undergoing threat and is a
Recovery – high to low distress regulatory strategy to reduce anxiety
Delayed – worsen over time o Brain Death – neurological condition which states
Chronic – remains distress for a long time the person is brain dead when all electrical activity
Resilience – low and gradually diminishing of the brain has ceased for a specific period of time
o Resilience – the mourner shows a low and gradually ▪ Higher portions of the brains dies sooner than
diminishing level of grief in response to the death of lower parts which facilitates breathing and
a loved one heartbeat
o By age 4, children build a partial understanding of ▪ That is why your brain could be dead but you still
the biological nature of death have heartbeat for the mean time
o Pre-school aged children believe that death can be o Suicide – growing number of people consider a
reversed by praying, magic, or wishful thinking mature adult’s deliberate choice of a time to end his
o By the time the school starts (beginning of concrete or her life a rational decision and a right to be
operations), most children seem to understand both defended
permanence and the universality of death o Euthanasia – good death, intended to end suffering
o Young children who have had direct experience with or to allow terminally ill person to die with dignity
the death of a family member are more likely to ▪ Passive – involves withholding or discontinuing
understand the permanence of death than those who treatment that might extend the life of a
had no such personal experience terminally ill patient such as life support
o Teenagers who attempt suicide believe that death is ▪ Active – “mercy killing” involves action taken
a pleasurable experience for most people who die directly or deliberate to shorten life
o For adults, they think of it as painful and unpleasant o Advance Directive – contains instructions for when
o Unique Invulnerability – belief that bad things and how to discontinue futile medical care
happen to others but not to themselves
#BLEPP
▪ Living will or a more formal legal document Absent – person feels no notable level of distress
called a durable power of attorney either immediately or any later time
▪ Durable Power of Attorney – appoints another Expected Developmental Tasks during Childhood,
person if the maker of the document becomes Adolescence, and Adulthood
incompetent to do so Infancy and Toddlerhood
o Assisted Suicide – physician or someone else helps o Reflex Behavior – automatic, innate response to
a person bring about a self-inflicted death stimulation which are controlled by the lower brain
o Life Review – a process of reminisce that enables a centers that govern involuntary processes
person to see the significance of his or her life o Primitive reflexes – includes sucking, rooting, and
o Denial (Positive Avoidance) – person rejects the Moro reflex are related to instinctive needs for
evidence about diagnosis survival and protection or may support the early
o Fighting Spirit – person maintains an optimistic connection to the caregiver
attitude and searches for more information about the o Postural Reflexes – reactions to changes in position
diseases or balance
o Stoic Acceptance – person acknowledges the o Locomotor Reflex – resemble voluntary movements
diagnosis but makes no effort to seek any further that do not appear until months after the reflexes
information, or person ignores the diagnosis and have disappeared
carries on normal life as much as possible o Early Reflexes Disappear during the first 6-12
o Helplessness/Hopelessness – sees herself as dying months
or gravely ill and as devoid of hope Early Human Reflexes
o Anxious Preoccupation – responded to the Moro Extend
diagnosis strongly and with persistent anxiety; they legs, arms,
interpret the information pessimistically and
Bowlby’s Stages of Grief (with Sanders) fingers,
Numbness (Shock) – mourner experiences disbelief, arches
confusion, restlessness, feelings of unreality, a sense back,
of helplessness draws
Yearning (Awareness) – bereaved person tries to back head
recover the lost person, may actively search or
wander as if searching, may report that he sees the (Swaddlin
dead person, mourner feels full of anger, anxiety, g is done
to avoid
guilt, fear, frustration, may sleep poorly and weep
often Moro
reflex)
Disorganization and Despair
(Conservation/Withdrawal) – acceptance of loss Darwinian Make
(Grasping) strong first
brings depression and despair or a sense of
helplessness, accompanied by great fatigue and a
desire to sleep all the time 1. Plantar
2. Palmar
Reorganization (Healing and Renewal) – individual
takes control again, some forgetting occurs, and some
sense of hope emerges Tonic Neck Fencer
Four Distinct Patterns of Grieving Position
Normal – feels great distress immediately following
the loss, with rapid recovery (Hand-Eye
Chronic – distress continues at a high level over Coordinati
several years on)
Delayed – feels little distress in the first few months,
but high levels of distress some months or years later
#BLEPP
Babkin Mouth Babies can now hold their head still to find out whether
opens, the object is moving
eyes close, They can already match the voice to faces
neck Distinguish female and male
flexes, Discriminate between faces of their own ethnic group
head tilts and those of other groups
forward Size constancy
Babinski Toes fan Infants develop the ability to perceive that occluded
out; foot objects are whole
twist in Fourth Month
Babies can keep their heads erect while being held or
supported in a sitting position
Can now roll-over, accidentally
Rooting Head Begin to reach objects
turns, Sixth Month
mouth Babies cannot sit without support
opens,
Can start creeping or crawling
sucking
Could successfully reach for objects in the dark faster
begins
than they could in the light
Walking Steplike
They can now localize or detect sounds from their
motions
origins, recognizes sound patterns and phonemes
Seventh Month
Pincer Grasps could already manifest
Can start standing
Swimming Swimming Can now sit independently
movement Start babbling
s Eighth Month
Babies can assume sitting position without help
Infants can now learn to pull themselves up and hold
on to a chair
o At 4 months, infant’s brain responds preferentially to Tenth Month
speech They can now stand alone
o Touch is the first sense to develop, the most mature First word
sensory system for the first several months Eleventh Month
Babies can let go and stand alone well
▪ Touch, Taste, Smell, Hearing, and Sight
Single words
o Sense of smell and taste begin to develop in the
Thirteenth Month
womb
Toddlers can now pull a toy attached to a string and use
o Motor and Talking Development: their hands and legs to climb stairs
First Month Use a lot of social gestures
Infants can turn their head from side to side Eighteenth to Twenty-Fourth Month
Grasping Reflex Toddlers can now walk quickly, run, and balance on
Starts to coo and play with speech sounds their feet in a squatting position
Second-Third Month Can now talk in two words continuously learning new
Babies can lift their heads words everyday
Can grasp moderate sized things until they will be able o Perceptual Constancy – sensory stimulation is
to grasp one thing using right hand and transfer it to changing but perception of the physical world
their left hand remains constant
#BLEPP
▪ Allows infants to perceive that their world as o Sensorimotor Stage:
stable Substages
▪ Size Constancy: recognition that an object 1. Use of Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month)
remains the same even though the retinal image Exercise their inborn reflexes and gain some control
of the object changes as you move toward or over them
away from the object Practice their reflexes and control them (e.g., sucking
▪ Shape Constancy: an object remains the same whenever they want to)
shape even though its orientation changes 2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)
o APGAR Scale – provide quick assessment of the Repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by chance
newborns: Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, Begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp
objects
Respiration
They turn towards the sounds
▪ 1 minute after being born, then after 5 minutes
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)
again
Repeat actions that brings interesting results
▪ Scores of 0-3 at 10, 15, and 20 minutes after birth
Learns about causality
are increasingly associated with cerebral palsy or 4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8-12
other neurological problems months)
9-10 Risk of developing ADHD is higher Coordinate previously learned schemes and use
7 or higher Good condition previously learned behaviors to attain their goals
5-7 Needs to establish breathing Can anticipate events
4 or below Needs immediate lifesaving 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)
treatment Purposefully vary their actions to see results
o Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development Actively explore the world
– developmental test designed to assess children Trial and error in solving problems
from 1 month to 3 ½ years 6. Mental Combinations
▪ Cognitive, Language, Motor, Social-Emotional, Can think about events and anticipate consequences
and Adaptive Behavior without always resorting action
▪ Accompanied by Behavior Rating Scale taken Can use symbols such as gestures and words, and can
from the caregiver pretend
o Home Observation for Measurement of the Transition to Pre-operational stage
Environment (HOME) – trained observers Learns about numbers
interview the primary caregiver and rate on a yes-or- o Schemes – actions or mental representations that can
no checklist the intellectual stimulation and support be performed on objects
observed in a child’s home o Assimilation – occurs when children use their
▪ Number of books and toys, parents involvement existing schemes to deal with new information
with the child, parental emotional and verbal o Accommodation – occurs when children adjust their
responsiveness, acceptance of the child’s schemes to take new information and experiences
behavior, organization of the environment, and into account
opportunities for daily and varied stimulation o Organization – grouping of isolated behaviors and
o Early Intervention – systematic process of planning thoughts into higher-order system
and providing therapeutic and educational services o Disequilibrium – cognitive conflict
for families that need help in meeting infants’, o Children constantly assimilate and accommodate as
toddlers’, and pre-school children’s developmental they seek equilibrium
needs o Equilibration – children shift from one stage of
thought to the next
o Representational Ability – the ability to mentally
represent objects and actions in memory, largely
#BLEPP
through symbols such as words, numbers, and mental – as when a person negotiates a dark room by feeling
picture for the location of familiar objects
o Infants develop the abilities to think and remember o During the second half of the first year, the prefrontal
o Visible Imitation that uses body parts that babies can cortex and associated circuitry develop the capacity
see develops first followed by Invisible Imitation of working memory (short-term storage of
(involves with parts of the body that babies cannot information the brain is actively processing)
see) o Working memory may be responsible for the slow
o Piaget believed that children under 18 months could development of object permanence
not engage in Deferred Imitation o Between 6-3 months, babies start cooing
▪ Reproduction of an observed behavior after the o By 6-10 months, they start babbling
passage of time o Infants start using gestures at about 7-15 months
▪ Children lacked the ability to retain mental o As early as 5 months, infants recognize their name
representations o Receptive Vocabulary – words that the child
o Infants under the age of about 8 months act as if an understands
object no longer exists once it is out other line of o Spoken Vocabulary – words the child
sight expresses/uses
o Object Permanence – the realization that something o Overextension – tendency to apply a word to objects
continues to exist when out of sight that are inappropriate for the word’s meaning by
o Until about 15 months, infants use their hands to going beyond the set of referents an adult would use
explore pictures as if they were objects (e.g. “Dada” not only for her Dad but also to other
o By 19 months, children are able to point at a picture male strangers)
of an object while saying its name, demonstrating an o Underextension – tendency to apply the word too
understanding that a picture is a symbol of something narrowly; occurs when children fail to use a word to
else name a relevant event or object
o Dual Representation Hypothesis – proposal that o Children between 18 to 24 months, speak in two-
children under age of 3 have difficulty grasping word utterances
spatial relationships because of the need to keep o Telegraphic Speech – the use of short and precise
more than one mental representation in mind at the words without grammatical markers such as articles,
same time etc. (“Momi give water”)
o Habituation – a type of learning in which repeated o Child-Directed Speech – language spoken with a
or continuous exposure to a stimulus, reduces higher-than-normal pitch, slower tempo, and
attention to that stimulus exaggerated intonation, with simple words and
▪ Familiarity breeds loss of interest sentences
o Dishabituation – if a new sight or sound is o Recasting – rephrasing something the child has said
presented, the baby’s attention is generally captured that might lack appropriate morphology
once again, and the baby will reorient toward the o Expanding – adding information to a child’s
interesting stimulus and once again sucking slows incomplete sentence (“Mama water,” “You want me
o Visual Preference – tendency to spend more time to give you water?”)
looking at one sight rather than another o Labeling – name objects that children
o Visual Recognition Memory – ability that depends o Storybook reading especially benefits children
on the capacity to form and refer to mental Four Patterns of Crying of Infants
representations Basic Hunger Cry – rhythmic pattern that usually
o Babies like to look at new things consist of cry, followed by a briefer silence
o Senses are unconnected at birth and are only Angry Cry – more excess air is forced through vocal
gradually integrated through experience cords
o Cross-Modal Transfer – the ability to use Pain Cry – sudden long, initial loud cry followed by
information gained from one sense to guide another breath holding
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Frustration Cry – higher pitch an a more monotonic Early Childhood
vocalization is associated with autonomic system 3 years old
activity during stressful procedures in infants Children begin to lose their babyish roundness and take
o Social Smiling – newborn infants gaze and smile at on the slender, athletic appearance of childhood
their parents; smile that occurs in response to Brain is approximately 90% of adult weight
external stimulus (2 months) Cannot turn or stop suddenly or quickly
o Reflexive Smile – a smile that does not occur in Can jump a distance of 15-24 inches
response to external stimuli and appear during the Can ascend a stairway unaided, alternating feet
first month after birth Can hop
o Anticipatory Smiling – infants smile at an object Handedness is evident
then gaze at an adult while continuing to smile All primary teeth are evident
o Self-Conscious emotions arise only after children Can now pick up tiny objects between their thumb and
have developed self-awareness forefingers (tho still clumsy)
o Altruistic Behavior – acting out of concern with no Know the difference between reality and imagination
expectation of reward Can use 900 to 1000 words
Typically begin to use plurals, possessives, and past
o Mirror Neurons – underlie empathy and altruism
tense
o Temperament – An early-appearing, biologically
4 years old
based tendency to respond to the environment in
Peak of the density of synapses in the prefrontal cortex
predictable ways More effective control of stopping, starting, and turning
▪ Raw materials of personality Can jump a distance of 24-33 inches
Easy Children – generally happy, rhythmic in Can descend a long stairway alternating feet if
biological functioning, and accepting of new supported
experiences Able to categorize objects to identify similarities and
Difficult Children – more irritable and harder to please differences
Slow-to-Warm-Up Children – mild but slow to adapt Can tell the differences in size
to new people and situations They conversate in sentences and may be declarative,
▪ Dimensions of Temperament: negative, interrogative, or imperative
a. Activity Level Can recognize facial expressions, recognize emotions
b. Biological Rhythmicity thru vocal cues and body postures
c. Approach/Withdrawal 5 years old
d. Intensity of Reaction Can start, turn, and stop effectively in games
e. Quality of Mood Can descend a long stairway, unaided
f. Persistence/Attention Span Run hard and enjoy races with each other
g. Distractibility Hand, arm, and body move together under better
h. Threshold of Responsiveness command of the eye
i. Negative Affect Can now count to 20 or more and know the relative
o Strong links between infant temperament and sizes of the numbers 1 through 10
childhood personality at age of 7 Speech is quite adultlike
o Goodness of Fit – the match between a child’s Children understand the public aspects of emotions
temperament and the environmental demands and (understand the things that causes others to be sad or
constraints the child must deal with happy)
6 years old
o Kinetic Cues – relies on movement
Brain is 90% of its peak volume
o Monocular Cues (4 months) – based on one eye
Permanent teeth begins to appear
o Binocular Cues (5-7 mos) – based on both eyes
Has an expressive vocabulary of 2,600 words and
understands more than 20,000
7 years old
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Children start to understand that mental states can drive o Egocentrism – young children center so much on
emotions their own point of view that they cannot take in
o Handedness – the preference of using one hand over another’s
the other o Conservation – the fact that two things are equal
▪ Left-handedness run in families remain so if their appearance is altered, as long as
o Preoperational Thought – beginning of the ability nothing is added or taken away
to reconstruct in thought what has been established o Theory of Mind – the awareness of the broad range
in behavior of human mental states – beliefs, intents, desires,
o Divided into Symbolic Function and Intuitive dreams, and so forth – and the understanding that
Thought others have their own
1. Symbolic Function – being able to think about ▪ Allows us to understand and predict the behavior
something in the absence of sensory or motor cues of others and makes the social world
▪ Can use symbols, or mental representations such understandable
as words, numbers, or images to which a person o 3-5 yr old children are more proficient with language
has attached meaning than younger children
▪ Deferred Imitation – children imitate an action o Fast Mapping – allows a child to pick up
at some point after observing it approximate meaning of a new word after hearing it
▪ Pretend Play – fantasy play, dramatic play, or only once or twice in conversation
imaginary play; children use an object to ▪ Nouns are easier to fast map than verbs
represent something else o Syntax – a concept and involves the rules for putting
▪ The most extensive use of symbolic function is together sentences in a particular language
language (grammar)
▪ Occurs between ages of 2 and 4 o Pragmatics – practical knowledge of how to use
2. Intuitive Thought – begin to use primitive reasoning language to communicate (communication itself)
and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions o Social Speech – speech intended to be understood by
▪ Occurs approx. 4-7 yrs of age a listener
o Children also begin to able to understand the symbols o Private Speech – talking aloud to oneself with no
that describe physical spaces intent to communicate with others (Egocentric
o Piaget believed that children cannot yet reason Speech)
logically about causality ▪ Private Speech: Vygotsky
o Transduction – they mentally link two events, ▪ Egocentric Speech: Piaget
especially events close in time, whether or not here ▪ Immature (Piaget)
is logically a causal relationship ▪ Learning Process (Vygotsky)
o Identities – the concept that people and many things o Emergent Literacy – development of fundamental
are basically the same even if they change in outward skills that eventually lead to being able to read
form, size, or appearance ▪ Social interaction promotes emergent literacy
o Animism – tendency to attribute life to objects that o Self-Concept – our total picture of our abilities and
are not alive traits
o Centration – the tendency to focus on one aspect of o Children’s self-definition typically change between
a situation and neglect others ages 5 and 7
▪ Children cannot Decenter (think about several o At about 7, children will be able to describe
aspects of a situation at one time) themselves in terms of generalized traits
▪ Involves on focusing on one dimension while o Self-Esteem – self-evaluative part of the self-
ignoring the other concept, the judgement children make about their
▪ Irreversibility – failure to understand that an overall worth
action can go in two or more directions ▪ Children’s self-esteem tends to be unidimensional
(either good or bad)
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▪ Children whose self-esteem is contingent on o Constructive play – combines
success tend to become demoralized when they sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic
fail representation
▪ Children with noncontingent self-esteem tend to o Games – activities that children engage in for
attribute failure or disappointment to factors pleasure and that have rules
outside themselves or to the need to try harder o Sex Segregation is common among preschoolers and
o Emotional self-regulation – helps children guide becomes more prevalent in middle childhood
their behavior and adjust their responses to meet o Gender Segregation – a phenomenon wherein girls
societal expectations tend to select other girls as playmates, and so boys
o Play – is vitally important to development and has o Discipline – refers to methods of molding character
significant current and long-term functions and of teaching self-control and acceptable behavior
▪ Enables children to engage with the world o External Reinforcements – may be tangible or
around them, use imagination, to discover intangible; it must be seen as rewarding and received
flexible ways to use objects and solve problems, fairly consistently after showing desired behavior
and to prepare for adult roles o Internal Reinforcements – a sense of pleasure or
o Social Cognitive Theory – observation enables accomplishment
children to learn much about gender-typed behaviors o Punishment, if consistent, immediate, and clearly
before performing them tied to the offense, may be effective
Cognitive Levels of Play ▪ Administered calmly, in private, and aimed at
Functional Play (Locomotor Play or Sensorimotor eliciting compliance not guilt
Play)– simplest level; begins during infancy, consisting ▪ Effective when accompanied with short
of repeated practice in large muscular movements explanation
Constructive Play (Object Play or Practice Play) – ▪ The desired behavior should be clear
use of objects or materials to make something ▪ Corporal Punishment – the use of physical force
Dramatic Play (Pretend Play, Fantasy Play, with the intention of causing a child to experience
Imaginative Play) – involves imaginary objects, pain but not injury for the purpose of correction
actions, or roles
or control of the child’s behavior
Formal Games – organized games with rules,
o Inductive Techniques – designed to encourage
procedures, and penalties
desirable behavior or discourage undesirable
6 Types of Play by Parten (1932)
Unoccupied Behavior – child does not seem to be behavior by settling limits, demonstrating logical
playing but watches anything of momentary interest consequences of the action, explaining, discussing,
Onlooker Behavior – child spends most time watching etc.
others play ▪ To consider how her actions would affect others
Solitary Independent Play – child plays alone o Power Assertion – intended to stop or discourage
Parallel Play – plays beside the other children undesirable behavior through physical or verbal
independently enforcement
Associative Play – children talk, borrow, and lend toys, o Withdrawal of Love – include ignoring, isolating,
follow each other around and play similarly or showing dislike for a child
Cooperative or Organized Supplementary Play – o Self-concept, self-esteem, emotion regulation
child plays in a group organized for some goal – to o Social emotions are usually attached to their parents
make something, play formal game, or dramatize a Middle and Late Childhood
situation o Faster and more efficient information processing and
o Reticent Play – combination of Unoccupied and an increased ability to ignore distractions
Onlooker categories is often a manifestation of o The overall volume of gray matter (linked with IQ)
shyness increases pre-puberty and declines post-puberty
o Social Play – involves interaction with peers ▪ Decline is due to loss in the density of gray matter
#BLEPP
▪ Gray matter volume peaks 1 to 2 years earlier in of people, animals, objects, or events, and then
girls than boys drawing conclusions about the class as a whole
▪ The loss in density of gray matter with age is ▪ Deductive Reasoning – starts with a general
balanced by another change – a steady increase in statement about a class and applies it to particular
white matter members of the class
o Motor Skills continue to improve in middle ▪ Piaget believed that children in the concrete
childhood operations stage only used inductive reasoning
▪ Children play games during recess which usually ✓ Conservation
involves socialization ▪ Principle of Identity: still same object even tho
▪ Boys typically play physically (running), whereas it has different appearance
girls loves games that involves verbal expression ▪ Principle of Reversibility: can picture what
or counting out loud (jump rope, hopscotch) would happen if he tried to roll back the clay of
▪ Rough-And-Tumble Play – wrestling, kicking, snake
tumbling, grappling, and chasing, accompanied ▪ Decenter: ability to look at more than one aspect
by laughing and screaming of the two objects at once
▪ 6-9 year olds need more flexible rules, shorter ✓ Numbers
instruction time, and more free time to practice o Children use increasingly precise verbs, simile and
than older children metaphor
▪ Older children are able to process instruction and o Rarely use passive voice
learn team strategies o Understanding of rules of syntax becomes more
o Body Image (how one believes one looks) becomes sophisticated with age
important early in middle childhood, especially for o Sentence structure continue to become more
girls, which could lead to eating disorders during elaborate
adolescence (may be influenced by playing o Boys tend to use more controlling statements,
unrealistic dolls such as barbie) negative interruptions, and competitive statements
o At about 7 years of age, children enter the stage of o Girls phrase their remarks in a more tentative,
Concrete Operations according to Jean Piaget conciliatory way and are more polite and cooperative
o Children can now think logically because they can o Self-Efficacy – an individual’s belief that they can
take multiple aspects of situations into account execute behaviors necessary to attain specific
o However, their thinking is still limited to real performance
situations in the here and now o Doing well in school increases self-efficacy
o Better understanding of: o Girls tend to do better in school than boys
✓ Spatial concepts – allows to interpret maps and o Children who are disliked by their peers tend to do
navigate environment poorly in school
✓ Causality – makes judgement about cause and effects o Many educators argue that smaller classes benefit
✓ Categorization students
▪ Seriation – arranging objects in a series Adolescence
according to one or more dimensions o A steady increase in white matter, nerve fibers that
▪ Transitive Inferences/Transivity – e.g. A < B < connect distant portions of the brain, permits faster
C information and better communication across
▪ Class Inclusion – ability to see the relationship hemispheres
between a whole and its parts, and to understand o Increase in white matter occurs early in women than
categories within a whole men
✓ Inductive and Deductive reasoning o By mid- to late adolescence, young people have
▪ Inductive Reasoning – involves making fewer but stronger, smoother, and more effective
observations about particular members of a class neuronal connections, making cognitive processing
more efficient
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o Development of the brain starts are the back and o Personal Fable – belief that they are special, their
moves forward experience is unique, and they are not subject to the
o The underdevelopment of frontal cortical systems by rules that govern the rest of the world
comparison may help explain why adolescent tend to ▪ Underlies much risky, self-destructive behavior
seek thrills and novelty and why many of them find ▪ Brain immaturity biases adolescent toward risky
it hard to focus on long-term goals decision making
o Peers tend to exert a stronger influence in o Adolescents also become more skilled in social
adolescence in part because of a heightened perspective-taking, the ability to tailor their speech
neurobehavioral susceptibility to social reward cues to another person’s POV
and concurrent immaturity in the cognitive control o Fuzzy-Trace Theory Dual-Process Model –
system decision making is influenced by two cognitive
o Adolescents enter what Piaget called the highest systems: verbatim analytical and gist-intuitional,
level of cognitive development – Formal which operate in parallel
Operations o School – offers opportunities to learn info, master
o Adolescents move away from their reliance on new skills, and sharpen old skills
concrete, real-world stimuli, and develop the o Educational Practices are based on the assumption
capacity for abstract thought that students are, or can be motivated to learn
o Usually around 11 yrs old o Boys are more likely to fail to achieve a baseline of
o They can now use symbols to represent other proficiency in reading, mathematics, and science
symbols, hidden messages, imagine possibilities, o Girls do better on verbal tasks that involve writing
create hypotheses and language usage
o Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning – methodical, o Boys do better in activities that involve visual and
scientific approach to problem solving, and it spatial functions helpful in math and science
characterizes formal operations thinking o Spillover – experiences in different contexts
▪ Involves ability to develop, consider, and test influence each other
hypotheses o A good middle or high school has an orderly, safe
▪ Piaget attributed it to a combination of brain environment, an adequate material resources, a
maturation and expanding environmental stable teaching staff, and a positive sense of
opportunities community
o According to David Elkind, the new way of thinking o Adolescents are more satisfied with school if allowed
of adolescents, the way they look at themselves and to participate in making rules, if they feel supported
their world, is as unfamiliar to them as their reshaped from teachers and other students, and if the
bodies, and they sometimes feel just awkward in its curriculum and instruction are meaningful and
use appropriately challenging and fit their interests, skill
o Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind at level, and needs
the same time yet may lack effective strategies for o Dropout reasons:
choosing them ✓ Low teacher expectations
o Self-Consciousness – adolescents can think about ✓ Differential treatment
thinking – their own and the other people’s thoughts ✓ Less teacher support
o Imaginary Audience – a conceptualized “observer” ✓ Perceived irrelevance of the curriculum to
who is concerned with a young person’s thoughts and culturally under-represented groups
behavior as he or she is o Self-Efficacy beliefs help shape the occupational
▪ Adolescents often assume everyone is thinking options students consider and the way they prepare
about the same thing they are thinking about: for careers
themselves o Service Learning – form of education that promotes
social responsibility and service to the community
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Young Adulthood o Schaie: A lifespan Model of Cognitive
o Stress may lead young adults to engage in risky Development
behaviors, eat unhealthily, have poor quality of sleep, Acquisitive Stage (Childhood and Adolescence)
etc. Children acquire info and skills mainly for their own
o Emotion-Focused Coping – manage emotions by sake or as preparation in society
refusing to think about an issue or reframing the Achieving Stage (Late teens or early twenties to
event in the positive light thirties)
o Problem-Focused Coping – involves addressing an They use what they know to pursue goals
issue head-on and developing action-oriented ways Responsible Stage (Late 30s to early 60s)
of managing and changing a bad situation Use their minds to solve practical problems associated
o Premenstrual Syndrome – disorder that produces with responsibilities to others
Executive Stage (30s or 40s through middle age)
physical discomfort and emotional tension for up to
Responsible for societal systems or social movements
2 weeks before menstrual period
Reorganizational Stage (end of middle age,
▪ Response to monthly surges of female hormones
beginning of late adulthood)
▪ More typical in women in their 30s or older Enter retirement, reorganize their lives and intellectual
▪ Dysmenorrhea: caused by contractions of the energies around meaningful pursuits that take place of
uterus which are set in motion by prostaglandin paid work
o Infertility – inability to conceive a baby Reintegrative Stage (Late Adulthood)
▪ Common causes in women: failure to produce Focus on the purpose of what they do and concentrate
ova, mucus in the cervix or disease of the uterine on tasks that have most meaning for them
lining Legacy-Creating Stage (advanced old age)
o Reflective Thinking – active, persistent, and careful Older people may create instructions for the disposition
consideration of information or beliefs of prized possessions, make funeral arrangements,
▪ Continually question facts, draw inferences, and provide oral histories, or write their life stories as
make connections legacy for their loved ones
▪ Frequently engage in critical thinking o Componential Knowledge – analytical abilities
▪ At approx. 20-25 years of age, the brain forms o Experiential Intelligence – original thinking,
new neurons, synapses, and dendritic experience-based
connections, and the cortical regions that handle o Contextual Intelligence – knowing your way
higher-level thinking become fully myelinated around
o Postformal Thought – characterized by the ability o Tacit Knowledge – inside information, know-how,
to deal with inconsistency, contradiction, and “hacks”, not formally taught or openly expressed;
compromise commonsense knowledge of how to get aged
▪ Draws on intuition and emotion as well as logic ▪ Includes self-management, management of tasks,
to help people cope with situations such as social and management of others
dilemmas o Emotional Intelligence – refers to four related
▪ Acknowledges that there may be more than one skills: the abilities to perceive, use, understand, and
valid way of viewing an issue and that the world manage or regulate emotions to achieve goals
is made up of shades of gray (Relativistic (Salovey & Mayer, 1990)
Thought) ▪ Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence
▪ Provisional: many young adults become more Test
skeptical about what the truth is o In Kohlberg’s Postconventional Morality, people
▪ use of both logic and experience became more capable of fully principled moral
reasoning, and that they made moral decisions on the
basis of universal principles of justice
o Culture affects the understanding of morality
#BLEPP
o As students gain more experience and think more There is closeness, understanding, emotional support,
deeply, they begin to realize that much knowledge affection, bondedness, and warmth
and many values are somewhat relative e.g., ka-talking stage mo na ayaw makipag-meet up at
o Commitment within Relativism – students decide walang label
for themselves, ideally, what they want to believe Infatuation
o Whether a person completes college may depend not Passion present
only on motivation, academic aptitude, and Strong physical attraction
preparation, and ability to work independently, but e.g., crushes, someone na naka-salubong mo sa kanto
also on social integration and social support tapos crush mo agad
Empty Love
o People seem to grow in challenging jobs
Commitment only
o Substantive Complexity – the degree of thought and
Found in long-term relationship that have lost both
independent judgement it requires – and a person’s
intimacy and passion
flexibility in coping with cognitive demands e.g., arranged marriage (justin-hailey charot)
o Spillover Hypothesis – cognitive gains from work Companionate Love
carry over to nonworking hours Intimacy and Commitment present
o Intimate relationship requires self-awareness, Long-term, committed friendship, no physical
empathy, the ability to communicate emotions, attraction
resolve conflict, and sustain commitments e.g., Couple with no sex life charot, BESTIEEEEES
o Friendships during young adulthood are much less Fatuous Love
stable because people relocate more frequently Passion and Commitment only
o They tend to center on work, sharing confidence and Couple makes commitment without allowing
advice themselves to develop intimacy
o Women have more intimate friendships than men e.g., Fuck Buddies
o Men are more likely to share information and Romantic Love
activities Passion and Intimacy only
o Fictive Kin – treated as family members despite a Drawn to each other physically and bonded
lack of blood relationship emotionally but not committed to each other
o Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love – the way Consummate Love
love develops is a story. The loves are its authors, and All three components completed
the story they create reflects their personalities and e.g., SANA ALL
their conceptions of love. o Some young adults stay single because they have not
o Three elements of love: found the right mate, some are single by choice
a. Intimacy – emotional element, involves self- o Friends With Benefits – relationships of friendships
disclosure, which leads to connection, warmth, blended with physical intimacy, but little
and trust commitment
b. Passion – motivational element, based on inner o Gay and Lesbian relationships mirror heterosexual
drives that translate physiological arousal into relationships
sexual desire ▪ More likely to negotiate household chores on a
c. Commitment – cognitive element, the decision more egalitarian basis
to love and make the relationship work (exclusive ▪ Resolve conflicts in more positive ways
or marry) ▪ Less stable
Nonlove ▪ Lesbian couples are more likely to divorce than
No intimacy, passion, nor commitment gay couples (AAAAWWW CALZONAAAAA)
Casual Interactions o Cohabitation – unmarried couple involved in sexual
e.g., friends, acquaintances relationship live together
Liking o Most young adults plan to marry, but only when they
Intimacy present feel ready, and they see getting on their feet
#BLEPP
financially and establishing themselves in a stable ▪ Specialized Knowledge or Expertise: form of
jobs or careers crystallized intelligence that is related to the
o Married people tend to be happier than unmarried process of encapsulation
people ▪ Adults do not usually depend on the brain’s
o Sex impacts relationship quality information-processing-machinery because some
o Women tend to place more importance on emotional adult’s fluid intelligence becomes encapsulated
expressiveness than men do (dedicated in handling specific kinds of
o Parental Investment Theory – sex differences in knowledge)
mate preferences and mating behavior are based on ▪ Expert thinking often seems automatic and
the different amounts of time and effort men and intuitive
women must invest in child rearing ▪ Such intuitive, experience-based thinking is also
o Social Role Theory – sex differences in mate a characteristic of Postformal Thought
preferences and mating behavior are adaptations to o An important feature of postformal thought is its
gender roles integrative nature – adults interpret what they read,
o Assortative Mating (Homogamy) – tendency to see, or hear in terms of its meaning for them
mate with someone who has traits similar to one’s o Phased Retirement – people reduce works hours or
own days, gradually moving into retirement over a
Donald Super’s Career Development Tasks number of years
1. Crystallization – develop and plan a tentative o Bridge Employment – switching to another
vocational goal company or new line of work
2. Specialization – convert generalized preference o If work, both on job and home, could be made
into a specific choice meaningful and challenging, more adults might
3. Implement – completing appropriate training and retain or improve cognitive abilities
securing a position in the chosen occupation o Employers see benefits of workplace education in
Middle Adulthood improved morale, increased quality of work, better
o Middle-Aged people are in their prime teamwork and problem solving, and greater ability to
o Individuals who scored the highest in the study of cope with new technology and other changes in
Schaie tended to have high educational levels, workplace
flexible personalities, intact families, pursue o Literacy – fundamental requisite for participation
cognitively complex occupations and other not only in the workplace but in all facets of a
activities, to be married to someone more cognitively modern, information-driven society
advanced, to be satisfied with their accomplishments o 5 Emotional Stages of Retirement:
o Fluid Intelligence – ability to solve novel problems, 1. Pre-Retirement: Planning the retirement
such as problems that require little or no previous ▪ Critical time for setting up for success in
knowledge retirement
▪ Peak in young adulthood ▪ Imagining ideal retirement, take stock for health,
▪ Many older adults perform in the real world at assess finances, building support network, decide
high levels despite declines in fluid intelligence when to retire
o Crystallized Intelligence – ability to remember and 2. Honeymoon Phase: Freedom
use information acquired over a lifetime, such as ▪ Enjoy newfound freedom and retirement
academics ▪ Can also be a time of anxiety and uncertainty
▪ Increase through middle age and often until the because they feel purposeless
end of life 3. Disenchantment Phase: What to do next?
o Mature adults show increasing competence in ▪ Feel restless, aimless, and bored
solving problems in their chosen field ▪ Feeling worn out because of aimlessly trying to
fill time with anything
#BLEPP
▪ Find clarity and do introspection work to connect ▪ Associated with prosocial behaviors
with self and discover retirement purpose o Midlife Review – involves recognizing the
▪ Have realistic expectations, be proactive, and set finiteness of life and can be a time of taking stock,
life goals discovering new insights about the self, and spurring
4. Reorientation: The New You midcourse corrections in the design and trajectory of
▪ Redefining yourself and finding new purpose in one’s life
retirement o Selective Optimization with Compensation –
▪ Reassessing priorities enhancing overall cognitive functioning by using
▪ Great opportunity for self-discovery stronger abilities to compensate for those that have
5. Stability Phase: Retirement Routine weakened
▪ Growth and contentment with new identity in Selecting – fewer and more meaningful activities or
retirement, and finding equilibrium goals
▪ Settling into a new normal Optimizing – the resources they have to achieve their
▪ Accepted retirement identity and created a daily goals
routine that works for them Compensating – using resources in alternative ways to
o Religion – organized set of beliefs, practices, rituals, achieve their goals
and symbols that increases an individual’s Old Age
connection to a sacred or transcendent other o Activities of Daily Livings – include bathing,
o Religiousness – degree of affiliation with an dressing, and using the toilet
organized religion, participation in its rituals and o Instrumental Activities of Daily Livings – include
practices activities that are more intellectually demanding
o Spirituality – involves experiencing something such as financial management
beyond oneself in transcendent manner o Successful Aging – good physical health, retention
o Women have consistently shown stronger interest in of cognitive abilities, and continuing engagement in
religion and spirituality than men social and productive activities
o Viktor Frankl said that the three most distinct human ▪ Individual sense of life satisfaction
qualities are spirituality, freedom, and responsibility o Lifelong program of exercise may prevent many
▪ Spirituality, in his view, refers to a human being’s physical changes once associated with normal aging
uniqueness of spirit, philosophy, and mind o Inactivity contributes to heart disease, diabetes,
▪ Having a sense of meaning in life can lead to colon cancer, and high blood pressure
clearer guidelines for living one’s life and o Volunteerism – performing unpaid work for
enhanced motivation to take care of oneself and altruistic reasons
reach goals o Religious Coping – the tendency to turn to religious
▪ Four main needs for meaning that guide how beliefs and institutions in times of stress and troubles
people try to make sense of their lives: ▪ Lower mortality rate and better physical health
Need for Purpose – goals and fulfillments and mental health
Need for Values – enable people to decide whether o Marriages in late adulthood, on average, highly
certain acts are right or wrong satisfying for both spouses, who exhibit strong
Need for a sense of efficacy – belief that they can loyalty and mutual affection
control their environment o Marriage is associated with better physical and
Need for Self-Worth mental health, higher levels of life satisfaction, and
o Generativity – involved finding meaning through lower rates of institutionalization
contributing to society and leaving a legacy for future o Older adults can learn new job skills, but training
generations programs are most effective when they take into
▪ Parenting, teaching, mentorship, productivity, consideration age-related changes in physical and
self-generation or self-development cognitive functioning
▪ “Maintenance of the work”
#BLEPP
o Wisdom – exceptional breadth and depth of - Diabetic mothers are most likely to have babies that
knowledge about the conditions of life and human have heart and neural tube defects
affects and reflective judgement about the - Stress and anxiety has been associated with more
application of knowledge irritable and active temperament in newborns
▪ May involve the lead to transcendence, - Chronic stress can result in preterm delivery
detachment from preoccupation with the self - Depression may cause premature birth or
developmental delays
▪ The ability to navigate the messiness of life
- Chance of miscarriage or stillbirth rises with maternal
▪ Older adults tend to make the most of their
age
abilities, often exploiting gains in one area to - Adolescent Mothers tend to have premature or
offset declines in another underweight babies
Developmental Challenges and Milestones - Fetal exposure to low level of environmental toxins
Challenges during Prenatal and Childhood may result to asthma, allergies, lupus
Prenatal - X-Rays could triple the risk of having full-term, low-
- Women of normal weight are less likely to have birth birth weight babies
complications - Exposure to lead, marijuana, tobacco, radiation,
- Overweight women have risk of having longer pesticides, etc may result in abnormal or poor quality
deliveries, need more health care services, gestational sperm
diabetes, cesarean delivery, birth defects etc. - Babies who fathers had diagnostic x-rays within the
- Malnutrition results to fetal growth restriction and low year prior to conception or had a high lead exposure at
birth weight work tends to have low birth weight and slowed fetal
- Thalidomide: caused stunted limbs, facial growth
deformities, and defective organs - Older fathers may be significant source of birth
- Another set of drugs that are harmful for pregnant defects due to damaged or deteriorated sperm such as
women: Antibiotics, certain Barbiturates, Opiates, dwarfism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, ASD
Acutane - Breech Position: baby’s buttocks are the first part to
- Opioids are associated with small babies, fetal death, emerge from the vagina which can cause respiratory
preterm labor, and aspiration of meconium problems
- Babies born with drug-addicted mothers tend to - Complications: bleeding, infection, damage to pelvic
experience withdrawal once they are born and no organs, post-operative pains, riskier future pregnancies
longer receive drugs - APGAR Scale: widely used to assess the health of
- Neonate Abstinence Syndrome: sleep disturbance, newborns at 1-5 mins after birth
tremors, difficulty regulating the body, irritability, ▪ 7-10, condition is good
crying and etc. ▪ 5, developmental difficulties
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: characterized by a ▪ 3 or below, emergency and the baby might not
combination of retarded growth, face and body survive
malformations, and disorders of the central nervous ▪ 9-10 score, risk of developing ADHD in
system childhood
- Maternal smoking was identified to be the most - Anoxia: lack of oxygen
important factor for low-birth weight babies - Hypoxia: reduced oxygen supply
- Tobacco also increases the risks of miscarriage, - Anoxia or Hypoxia may occur during delivery as a
growth retardation, stillbirth, SIDS, etc. result of repeated compression of the placenta and
- Caffeine has slightly increased risk for miscarriage, umbilical cord that could leave permanent brain
stillbirth, and low birth weight babies damage, mental retardation, behavior problems or even
- Rubella almost certain to cause deafness and heart death
defects to babies - Meconium: stringy, greenish-black waste matter
- Toxoplasmosis: caused by parasite in the bodies of formed in the fetal intestinal tract
cattle, sheep, and pigs, and in the intestinal tracts of cats - Neonatal Jaundice: skin and eyeballs look yellow
that causes fetal brain damage, severely impaired caused by immaturity of the liver
eyesight, seizures, miscarriage, etc. - Low Birth Weight Infants: weigh less than 5 pounds
and 8 ounces at birth
#BLEPP
▪ Very Low birth Weight: less than 3 pounds 4 - Motor coordination in childhood tends to be relatively
ounces stable over time
▪ Extremely Low Birth: less than 2 pounds - Handedness: the preference of using one hand over
- Pre-term Infants: born three weeks or more before the other
pregnancy reach full term (before the completion of 37 - 41 million children under age 5 were obese in 2016
weeks of gestation) - Stunted Children: normal weight but shorter than they
- Small for Date Infants (Small for Gestational Age should for their age and may have cognitive and
Infants): those whose birth weight is below normal physical deficiencies, visible in developing countries
when the length of pregnancy is considered - Food Allergies are more prevalent in children than in
- Progestin: might help in reducing preterm birth adults and most of them outgrow their allergies
- Extremely Preterm: born less than 28 weeks gestation - Car accidents are the most commonly reported cause
- Very Preterm: less than 33 weeks of accidental death for children over the age of 4
- Kangaroo Care: involves skin-to-skin contact in - Children exposed to tobacco smoke are more likely to
which the baby, wearing only diaper, is held upright develop wheezing symptoms and asthma, and have a
against the parent’s bare chest to help stabilize the higher risk for high-blood pressure
preterm’s heartbeat, temp, and breathing - Other common causes of death in early childhood:
Infancy & Toddlerhood cancer, congenital abnormalities, and chromosomal
- Nonorganic Failure to thrive: slowed or arrested disorders, assault, heart disease, respiratory disease and
physical growth with no known medical cause, septicemia
accompanied by poor developmental and emotional - Contextual factors such as poverty and parenting
functioning quality are linked to the development of the brain
- Shaken Baby Syndrome: baby has a weak neck Types of Child Maltreatment
muscles, and a large, heavy head, shaking makes the 1. Physical Abuse – infliction of physical injury
brain bounce back and forth inside the skull 2. Child Neglect – failure to provide child’s basic
- One condition commonly faced by preterm babies is needs
Respiratory Distress Syndrome – wherein there is a 3. Sexual Abuse
lack of surfactant (lung-coating substance) that keeps 4. Emotional Abuse – acts or omissions by parents or
air sacs from collapsing other caregivers that have caused or could cause,
- Postmature Babies: tend to be long and this because serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems
they have kept growing in the womb but have had an Middle and Late Childhood
insufficient blood supply toward the end of gestation - Tooth decay remains one of the most common chronic
- Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: crib death; sudden untreated conditions
death of an infant under age 1 which cause of death - Access to proper dental care is important for young
remains unexplained children
Early Childhood - Recommended calories per day for schoolchildren 9
- Sleep problems are occasional and usually outgrown to 13 years of range from 1,400 to 2,600 depending on
- Many of sleep problems issues are the result of gender and activity level
ineffective parenting - Sleep: average of 10 hrs a day
- Persistent sleep problems may indicate emotional, - Factors that affect children’s sleep:
physiological, or neurological condition that needs to ▪ Exposure to media screens
be examines ▪ Physical inactivity
- Night terrors generally peach at about 1 ½ years and ▪ Secondhand smoke
are common between 2 ½ and 4 years of age ▪ Poor housing
- Sleepwalking, sleeptalking, and night terrors are ▪ Vandalism
common when children are sleep deprived, have fever ▪ Lack of parks and playgrounds
or on medications, or when conditions are noisy - Persistent snoring, at least 3x a week, may indicate a
- Nightmares are common during early childhood child has sleep-disordered breathing, which is linked to
- Enuresis: repeated involuntary urination at night by behavioral and learning difficulties
children old enough to have bladder control - Body Image (how one believes one looks) becomes
important early in middle childhood, especially for
girls, which could lead to eating disorders during
#BLEPP
adolescence (may be influenced by playing unrealistic ▪ Asperger Syndrome: mild ASD
dolls such as barbie) - Bullying: aggression that is deliberately, persistently
- Causes of obesity: directed against a particular target
▪ Overweight parents or other relatives Parenting Styles
▪ Poor nutrition 1.Authoritarian – emphasizes control and
▪ Eating fast food unquestioning obedience, high control, low
▪ Sugar responsiveness
▪ Inactivity 2. Permissive/Indulgent – make few demands, warm,
- Acute Medical Conditions: occasional, short-term noncontrolling, low control, high responsiveness
conditions, such as infections and warts 3. Authoritative – emphasizes child’s individuality but
- Chronic Medical Conditions: physical, also stress limits, high control, high responsiveness
developmental, behavioral, or emotional conditions 4. Neglectful or Uninvolved – parents neglect
that persists 3 months or more such as asthma and children; low control, low responsiveness
diabetes - Altruism: motivation to help another person with no
- Asthma: chronic, allergy-based respiratory disease expectation of reward
characterized by sudden attacks of coughing, - Prosocial Behavior: voluntary, positive actions to
wheezing, and difficulty breathing help others
- Caused by genetics, smoke exposure, low levels of - Instrumental Aggression: used aggression as a tool to
vitamin D gain access to a wanted object
- Diabetes: one of the most common diseases in school- - Overt (Direct) Aggression: boys; tend to openly direct
aged children aggressive acts at a target
- Characterized by high levels of glucose in the blood - Relational Aggression: more subtle; indirect social
as a result of defective insulin production, ineffective aggression
insulin action, or both - Retaliatory Aggression: to get revenge
- Hypertension: high blood pressure; children with Challenges during Adolescence and Adulthood
hypertension are more likely to have learning Adolescence
disabilities and may have problems with executive - Secular Trend: children may be starting puberty
functioning earlier but spending more time to reach full sexual
- Accidental Injuries are the leading cause of accidental maturity
death among school-age US Children - May be due to higher standard of living,
- Intellectual Disability: significantly subnormal undernutrition, health, exposure to endocrine-
cognitive functioning disrupting chemicals
- Intervention programs have helped many of those - May also because they were firstborn, being born to a
mildly or moderately disabled and those considered single mother and harsh maternal parenting practices
borderline to hold jobs, live in the community, and - However, it was concluded that children who are
function in society exposed to high stress when young tend to reach
- Learning Disabilities: difficulty in learning that pubertal milestone earlier than those who are not
involves understanding or using spoken or written - Early maturation has been liked to adult health issues
language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, such as cancers, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease
thinking, reading, writing, and spelling - Early puberty can be a predictor of adult obesity and
▪ Dyslexia: most commonly diagnosed LD; polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) – disorder
severe impairment in their ability to read and causing acne, irregular periods, excess hair growth, and
spell the growth of cysts on ovaries
▪ Dysgraphia: difficulty in handwriting - Effects of early or late maturation are most likely to
▪ Dyscalculia: developmental arithmetic be negative when adolescents are much more or less
disorder developed than peers
- ADHD: most common mental disorder in childhood - The underdevelopment of frontal cortical systems by
- Autism Spectrum Disorder: Pervasive Developmental comparison may help explain why adolescent tend to
Disorder seek thrills and novelty and why many of them find it
▪ Autistic Disorder: severe developmental ASD hard to focus on long-term goals
that has onset during the first 3 yrs of life
#BLEPP
- Peers tend to exert a stronger influence in adolescence - This may be due to biological changes associated with
in part because of a heightened neurobehavioral puberty
susceptibility to social reward cues and concurrent - Motor Vehicle collisions are the leading cause of
immaturity in the cognitive control system accidental deaths among US teenagers
- A sedentary lifestyle may result in increased risk of - Homicides are the third leading cause
poor mental health, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and an - Suicide is the second cause of death
increased likelihood of heart disease and cancer in - Young people who consider or attempt suicide tend to
adulthood have histories of emotional illness
- Children generally go to sleep later and sleep less on Young Adulthood
school days the older they get - The habits that young adults develop during this time
- Sleep deprivation can sap motivation and cause in the life span tend to become ingrained over time and
irritability, and concentration and school performance are highly predictive of the likelihood they will
can suffer experience good health at older ages
- After puberty, the secretion of melatonin takes place - Genes affect the action of the hormone receptors,
later at night, making it difficult for adolescent to go to stress response systems, and synaptic plasticity may
bed early influence a person’s ability to respond adaptively to
- Overweight teenagers tend to be in poorer health than stressful events
their peers and are more likely have difficulty attending - Poor diets and lack of physical activity are among the
school or engaging in strenuous activity leading causes of preventable diseases, overweight, and
- Body Image: one’s perception, thoughts, and feelings obesity
about one’s body - WHO recommends Mediterranean-style diet rich in
- Girls tend to express the highest level of body fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and unsaturated fats
satisfaction when underweight, some dissatisfaction - Increase snacking, availability of inexpensive fast
when average weight, and the most dissatisfaction foods, supersized portions, labor-saving technologies,
when overweight high-fat diets, and sedentary recreational pursuits
- Anorexia Nervosa: distorted body image, severely explains obesity epidemic
underweight, may be withdrawn or depressed, and - Bariatric Surgery: any surgery that is carried out to
afraid of losing control and becoming overweight induce weight loss, and it generally involves rerouting
- Bulimia Nervosa: short-lived binge eating and then or removing parts of the stomach or small intestine
purging by self-induced vomiting, strict dieting, - The most common eating disorders in Young
excessive exercise, etc. Adulthood are Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
- Binge-eating disorder: binging without purging of - People who are physically active maintain healthy
food body weight, builds muscles, strengthen heart and
- A recent trend is the abuse of nonprescription cough lungs, lowers blood pressure, protects against heart
and cold meds (dextromethorphan) disease, etc.
- Binge Drinking: consuming five or more drinks on - High levels of chronic stress are related to a host of
one occasion physical and immunological impairments
- When the brain is undergoing significant structural - Stress may lead young adults to engage in risky
and functional change, might be a period of the life behaviors, eat unhealthily, have poor quality of sleep,
span during which teens should be particularly etc.
sensitive to environmental influences - Emotion-Focused Coping: manage emotions by
- Alcohol interacts with inhibitory and excitatory refusing to think about an issue or reframing the event
receptor systems that are developing in adolescence, in the positive light
making them more sensitive to rewarding effects of - Problem-Focused Coping: involves addressing an
alcohol and less sensitive to its negative features issue head-on and developing action-oriented ways of
- Those who drink show changes in key prefrontal managing and changing a bad situation
areas, including middle frontal gyrus, superior frontal - College-age women more likely to use emotion-
gyrus, left frontal cortex, frontal pole, and left frontal focused strategies
gyrus – all areas involved in executive control - Among college students, family stress, academic
- Being female is a risk factor for depression stress, is associated with high levels of insomnia
#BLEPP
- Sleep Deprivation affects not only the physical health - The most common contraceptive are the birth control
but also cognitive, emotional, and social functioning as pills, female sterilization, and condoms
well - Casual Sex is fairly common
- Primary cognitive consequence is impaired attention - However, Sexual assaults are problem
and vigilance - Rape: forcible sexual intercourse
- Chronic sleep deprivation can seriously worsen - Date or Acquaintance Rape: coercive sexual activity
cognitive performance directed at someone with whom the perpetrator is at
- Sleep deprivation has been linked to depression and least casually acquainted
insomnia and sleep disturbances also are related to the - Most lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons
risk of postpartum depression are clear about their sexual identity
- Smoking is the leading preventable cause of death, - Premenstrual Syndrome: disorder that produces
illness and impoverishment worldwide physical discomfort and emotional tension for up to 2
- A tendency to addiction may be genetic weeks before menstrual period
- College students tend to drink more frequently and - Response to monthly surges of female hormones
more heavily than their noncollegiate peers - More typical in women in their 30s or older
- Risky Drinking: consuming more than 14 drinks a - Dysmenorrhea: caused by contractions of the uterus
week or 4 drinks on any single day for men and more which are set in motion by prostaglandin
than 7 drinks a week or 3 days on any single day for - Infertility: inability to conceive a baby
women - Common causes in women: failure to produce ova,
- Social Integration: active engagement in a broad mucus in the cervix or disease of the uterine lining
range of social relationships, activities, and roles - Marital satisfaction typically declines during the
- Social Support: refers to material information, and child-raising years, and the more children, the greater
psychological resources derived from the social decline
network on which a person can rely for help in coping - Many couples find their relationship becoming more
with stress traditional following the birth of a child, with the
- Alcoholism: long term physical condition woman often engaging in the bulk of caregiving and
characterized by compulsive drinking that a person is housekeeping
unable to control - Combining work and family roles is good for both
- The most common habit-forming drugs include men’s and women’s mental and physical health and has
marijuana and prescription painkillers, followed by positive effects on the strength of their relationship
cocaine and heroin - The most cited reasons are incompatibility, lack of
- Adolescence and emerging adulthood appear to be emotional support, lack of career support, abuse,
sensitive periods for the onset of depressive disorders premarital cohabitation, and infidelity
- Adolescents who are depressed and who depression - Couples are more likely to stay married if they have
carries over into adulthood, tend to have had significant children. However, it can create more conflict and does
childhood risk factors, such as neurological or greater damage
developmental disorders, dysfunctional or unstable - Adults with divorced parents are more likely to expect
families, and childhood behavioral disorders that their marriage will not last (commitment issues)
- Adult-onset group tend to have had low levels of - Divorce tends to reduce long-term well-being
childhood risk factors and to possess more resources to - People who were thought they were happily married
deal with the challenges of emerging adulthood tend to react more negatively and adapt more slowly to
- Pre-marital sex has been increasing for adults over 18 divorce
- Acceptability of homosexual unions is growing, - Remarriage is the triumph of hope over experience
especially in younger cohorts and in women - Families in which both parents bring children into
- Sexual Script: stereotyped pattern of role marriage are marked by higher levels of conflict
prescriptions for how individuals should behave - Remarriages are more likely to end in divorce than
sexually second marriage
- Emerging adults tend to have more sexual partners Middle Adulthood
than in older age groups, but they have sex less - Age-related visual problems occur mainly in five
frequently areas: near vision, dynamic vision, sensitivity to light,
#BLEPP
visual search, and speed of processing visual - Men at this age also experiences sexual dysfunction
information due to diabetes, obesity, hypertension, depression, etc.
- Presbyopia: – difficulty focusing on near objects - Hypertension: high blood pressure, increasing
- Myopia: nearsightedness important concern from midlife and the world’s leading
- Presbycusis: gradual hearing loss preventable cause of early death
- Men experience hearing loss quickly than women - Cancer has replaced heath disease as the leading cause
- Noise experienced at the work site of death between ages 45 and 64
- Sensitivity to taste and smell also declines in midlife - Type 2 Diabetes: mature onset, the most common
- Some loss of muscle strength is usually noticeable by type; develops after age 30; glucose levels rise because
age of 45 the cells lose their ability to use insulin
- Basal Metabolism: minimum amount of energy that - Type 1 Diabetes: juvenile-onset, or insulin-dependent,
your body needs to maintain vital functions while in which the levels of blood sugar rises because the
resting body does not produce enough insulin
- Manual Dexterity generally becomes less efficient - Excess weight in middle age increases the risk of
with age impaired health and death
- Aging brain works more slowly and have difficulty - People with low socioeconomic status tend to have
juggling multiple tasks poorer health, shorter life expectancy, more activity
- The ability to ignore distractions declines with age limitations due to chronic disease, and lower well-
- Decrease in the volume of gray matter and myelin being than people with higher SES
begins to break down with age - Women have a higher life expectancy than men and
- Physical activity and fitness are associated with lower death rates, may be due to genetic protection
higher white and gray matter volume given by the second X chromosome and before
- Meditation affords cognitive benefits to middle aged menopause, to beneficial effects of estrogen on both
adults and may help offset declines cardiovascular and cognitive health
- Skin may become less taut and smooth as the layer of - However, women report being in fair or poor health
fat below the surface becomes thinner, collagen than men
molecules more rigid, and elastin fibers more brittle - Osteoporosis: bones become thin and brittle as a
- Middle-aged people tend to gain weight as a result of result of calcium depletion (due to falling of estrogen
accumulation of body fat and lose height due to levels)
shrinkage of the intervertebral disks - Good lifestyle habits can reduce risk, if started early
- Vital Capacity: the maximum volume of air the lungs in life
can draw in and expel – may begin to diminish at about - Breast cancer is responsible for the largest number of
age of 40 cancer-related deaths among women
- Middle-aged adults are less likely to fall asleep at - Risks: overweight, alcoholism, early menarche and
daytime, need less sleep to maintain alertness, and slow late menopause, history of breast cancer in the family,
reductions in slow wave sleeps at night no children, did not breast-feed, or late pregnancy
- Menopause: when a woman permanently stop - Treated by removal of part or all breast and
ovulating and menstruating and can no longer conceive chemotherapy
a child - Mammography: diagnostic x-ray of the breasts
- One year after the last menstrual period - The most troublesome physical effects of menopause
- Perimenopause (Climacteric): beginning of are linked to reduce levels of estrogen and hormone
menopause; woman’s production of mature ova begins therapy
to decline, and the ovaries produce less estrogen - Hormone Therapy: treatment with artificial estrogen
- Hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, sleep - Stress: the damage that occurs when perceived
disturbances, mood disturbances, urinary incontinence, environmental demands or stressors exceed a person’s
cognitive disturbances, somatic symptoms, sexual capacity to cope with them
dysfunction - Stress in midlife may come from role changes, career
- Menopause Hormone Therapy and SSRIs transitions, grown children leaving home, and the
- At age 30, men’s testosterone levels, sperm count, renegotiation of family relationships
genetic quality declines - Women experience more stress than men and to be
more concerned about stress
#BLEPP
- The classic stress response – fight or flight – may be - Empty Nest: occurs when the youngest child leaves
more characteristic of men, activated in part by home
testosterone - In a good marriage, departure of children generally
- The brain interacts with all of the body’s biological increases marital satisfaction
systems, feelings and beliefs affect bodily functions, - Revolving Door Syndrome or Boomerang
including the functioning of the immune system Phenomenon: returning to parent’s home, sometimes
- Midlife Crisis: changes in personality and lifestyle with their own families
during middle forties - Prolonged Parenting may lead to intergenerational
- Many people realize that they will not be able to fulfill tension when it contradicts parent’s normative
the dreams of their youth, or that fulfillment of their expectations
own mortality Old Age
- People who do have crisis at midlife generally also - Women live longer and have lower mortality rates at
have crises at other times in their lives as well all ages than men
- Manifestation of a neurotic personality rather than - Women’s longer lives also have been attributed to
developmental phase their greater tendency to take care of themselves and to
- Turning Point: psychological transition that involves seek medical care, the higher level of social support
significant change or transformation in the perceived they enjoy, and the rise in women’s socioeconomic
meaning, purpose, or direction of a person’s life status in recent decades
- Triggered by major life events, normative changes, or - Endocrine Theory: biological clocks act through
a new understanding of past experience hormones to control the pace of aging
- The most common pattern for marriages was for - Immunological Theory: programmed decline in
marriages to be broken by death and for survivors to immune system functions leads to increased
remarry vulnerability to infectious disease and thus to aging and
- Marriages generally follow a developmental death
sequence, with initial sharp declines in marriage - Evolutionary Theory: Aging is an evolved trait thus
satisfaction followed by a plateau, then further, slower genes that promote reproduction are selected at higher
declines over the longer term rates than genes that extend lives
- One of the negative impact of marital satisfaction is - Variable-Rate Theories: aging is the results of random
the birth of a child processes that vary from person to person (Error
- Couples who are sexually satisfied are generally theories)
satisfied with their marriages - Wear-and-Tear Theory: cells and tissues have vital
- When older adults cohabitate, their relationships are parts that wear out
more stable than those of younger cohabiting adults - Free-Radical Theory: Accumulated damage from
- Higher divorce rates at middle age oxygen radicals causes cells and eventually organs to
- Divorce is associated with elevated chance of chronic stop functioning
health conditions and mortality in both sexes, but - Rate-of-Living Theory: the greater an organism’s rate
specially in men of metabolism, the shorter its life span
- Long-standing marriages may be less likely to break - Autoimmune Theory: Immune system becomes
up than more recent ones confused and attacks its own body cells
- Marital Capital: the longer a couple is married, the - Survival Curve: represents the percentage of people
more likely they are to have built up joint financial or animals alive at various age
assets, to share the same friends, to go through - The most fruitful area for longevity interventions
important experiences together, and to get used to the should be focused on risk reduction and living a healthy
emotional benefits that marriage can provide lifestyle
- Marriage is associated with encouragement of health- - Older skin tends to become paler and less elastic,
promoting behaviors varicose veins appears in legs
- One factor that seems to affect relationship quality in - They become shorter due to disks between spinal
gays and lesbians is whether or one they have vertebrae atrophy
internalized society’s negative views on homosexuality - Lungs become less effective because of reductions in
- The quality of midlife friendships often makes up for Lung volume, atrophy in muscles involve in breathing,
what they lack in quantity of time spent and reductions in the ability of cilia
#BLEPP
- Elderly adults are more likely to suffer from - Lewy Bodies: have movement or balance (stiffness or
Arrythmia (irregular heartbeat), the muscle walls trembling); daytime sleepiness, confusion, or staring;
thicken, and the valves that control the flow of blood in trouble sleeping at night and visual hallucinations
and out of the heart may no longer open completely - Frontotemporal: leads to personality and behavior
- Reserve Capacity: backup capacity that helps body changes and problems in language skills
system function to their utmost limits in times of stress - Huntington’s: resulted from gene mutation which
- In late adulthood, the brain gradually diminishes in impacts movement, behavior, and cognition;
volume and weight, particularly in the frontal and personality also changes, loss of coordination,
temporal regions difficulty in swallowing and speaking
- Hippocampus (memory area) also shrinks - Parkinson’s: uncontrollable movements, tremor,
- Decrease in the number of dopamine stiffness, slow movement, prevalent in men than
neurotransmitters due to losses of synapses women; nerve cells in basal ganglia become impaired;
- Older eyes need more light to see, are more sensitive L-Dopa as treatment
to glare, and may have trouble locating and reading - Language problems are probably results of the
signs problems accessing and retrieving information from the
- Cataracts: cloudy or opaque areas in the lends of the memory
eyes, are common in older adults - Dysfunction in frontal lobes and hippocampus may
- Age-Related Macular Degeneration: leading cause of cause false memories
visual impairment in older adults; the retinal cells in the - Older adults seems to have difficulty encoding new
macula degenerate over time, and the center of the episodic memories because of difficulties in forming
retina gradually loses the ability to sharply distinguish and later recalling a coherent and cohesive episode
fine details - Storage also deteriorate to the point retrieval becomes
- Glaucoma: irreversible damage to the optic nerve difficult
caused by increased pressure in the eye - Terminal Drop: rapid decline in well-being and life
- Loss of strength is greater for lower than for upper satisfaction approx. 3-5 yrs before death
limbs - Close marital relationship can moderate the negative
- Falls, the most common cause of fracturs, become psychological effects of functional disabilities by
increasingly common with age reducing psychological distress
- Functional Fitness: exercises or activities that - Widowhood has been increasingly associated with
improve daily activity increased mortality, with sharpest declines seen in the
- Older people tend to sleep and dream less than before first 6 months following the death of a spouse
driven by the normative changes in circadian rhythms Identifying the challenges with Death
- Men typically take longer to develop erection and to o Terminal Drop or Terminal Decline – specifically
ejaculate, may need more manual stimulation, may to a widely observed decline in cognitive abilities
experience longer intervals between erections or may shortly before death
have difficulty doing it o Near-Death Experience – often involving a sense of
- Women have difficulty in arousal, orgasm, etc.
being out of the body or sucked into a tunnel and
- Lifelong program of exercise may prevent many
visions of bright lights or mystical encounters
physical changes once associated with normal aging
- Inactivity contributes to heart disease, diabetes, colon ▪ Linked to stimulation or damage of various brain
cancer, and high blood pressure areas, most notably in bilateral frontal and
- Dementia: the general term for physiologically occipital areas
caused cognitive and behavioral decline sufficient to ▪ Generally experienced as positive as a result of
interfere with daily activities the release of endorphins
- Alzheimer’s: most common type, caused by specific o Five Stages of Death
changes in the brain (abnormal build up of 1. Denial
neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaque in the brain) 2. Anger
(Amnesia, Aphasia, Agnosia, Apraxia, Anomia) 3. Bargain
- Vascular: caused by strokes or other issues of blood 4. Depression
flow in the brain; may be due to diabetes and high 5. Acceptance
cholesterol; have strokes like episodes
#BLEPP
o Grief – emotional response that generally follows - cries when they are unhappy and become quiet at the
closely on the heels of death sound of human voice or when they are picked up
o Bereavement – response to the loss of some whom 2nd – 3rd Month:
a person feels close - babies can now lift their heads
o Grief Work – working out of psychological issues - can grasp moderate sized things until they will be able
connected with grief often takes the following path: to grasp one thing using right hand and transfer it to
their left hand
4. Shock and Disbelief
- can now hold their head still to find out whether the
5. Preoccupation with the memory of the dead
object is moving
person - can already match the voice to faces
6. Resolution - distinguish male and female
o Recovery Pattern – mourner goes high to low - size constancy
distress - infants develop the ability to perceive that occluded
o Delayed Grief – moderate or elevated initial grief, objects are whole
and symptoms worsen over time - social smiling
o Chronic Grief – distressed for a long time 4th Month:
o Complicated Grief – atypical grief reactions - babies can keep their heads erect while being
o Disenfranchised Grief – grief that is not socially supported in a sitting position
recognized - can now roll-over, accidentally
o Anticipatory Grief – when death is expected - begin to reach objects
- begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp
o Resilience – the mourner shows a low and gradually
objects
diminishing level of grief in response to the death of
- turn toward sounds
a loved one 6th Month:
o By age 4, children build a partial understanding of - babies cannot sit without support
the biological nature of death - can start creeping or crawling
o Adjusting to loss is more difficult if a child had a - could successfully reach for objects in the dark faster
troubled relationship with the person who died than they could in the light
o They do not understand death, but they understand - they can now localize or detect sounds from their
loss origins
o Often, teens turn to peers for support - repeat actions that brings interesting results
o Young adults will find their entire world collapsing - cooing
at once when they knew they are dying instead of - they can now recognize their name
dealing with other issues 7th Month:
- pincer grasps could already manifest
o Middle-Aged and Older adults are more prepared
- can start standing
with death - can now sit independently
o Terror Management Theory – human’s unique 8th Month:
understanding of death, in concern with self- - babies can now sit without help
preservation needs and capacity for fear, results in - can now learn to pull themselves up and hold on to a
common emotional and psychological responses chair
when mortality, or thoughts of death are made salient 10th month:
Expected Developmental Milestones during - can now stand alone
Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood - babbling
Infancy 11th month:
1st Month: - babies can let go and stand alone well
- infants can turn their head from side to side - can now anticipate events
- grasping reflex Toddlerhood
- practice reflexes and control them - early reflexes disappears
- potty training
#BLEPP
- can now pull a toy attached to a string and use their - Children use increasingly precise verbs, simile and
hands and legs to climb stairs metaphor
- can now walk quickly, run, and balance on their feet - Rarely use passive voice
in a squatting position - Understanding of rules of syntax becomes more
- purposefully vary their actions to see results sophisticated with age
- explores the world and trial and errors - Sentence structure continue to become more elaborate
- can now think about events and anticipate - Boys tend to use more controlling statements,
consequences without always resorting to action negative interruptions, and competitive statements
- learns numbers - Girls phrase their remarks in a more tentative,
- can now use symbols such as gestures of words conciliatory way and are more polite and cooperative
- can now point at a picture of an object while saying Adolescence
its name, demonstrating an understanding that a picture - Adult height, weight, and sexual maturity
is a symbol of something else - growth of secondary sexual characteristics
- speak in two-word utterances (telegraphic speech) - menstrual period for women
- social emotions towards self and others - peer acceptance
(embarrassment, pride, guilt, empathy etc.) - understanding of abstract concepts
Early Childhood - growth spurt
- can now engage to deferred imitation - A steady increase in white matter, nerve fibers that
- primary teeth is evident connect distant portions of the brain, permits faster
- can now pick up tiny objects using thumb and information and better communication across
forefingers hemispheres
- know the difference between reality and imagination - Adolescents move away from their reliance on
- begin to use plurals, possessives, and past tense concrete, real-world stimuli, and develop the capacity
- can now control movements such as stopping, turning, for abstract thought
jumping - They can now use symbols to represent other
- can categorize objects and identify similarities and symbols, hidden messages, imagine possibilities, create
differences hypotheses
- can now conversate in sentences and may be - Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning: methodical,
declarative, negative, interrogative, or imperative scientific approach to problem solving, and it
- can recognize facial expressions characterizes formal operations thinking
- speech is quite adultlike - Involves ability to develop, consider, and test
- can understand the public aspects of emotions hypotheses
- permanent teeth begins to appear - Piaget attributed it to a combination of brain
Middle and Late Childhood maturation and expanding environmental opportunities
- gains skills for team sports - According to David Elkind, the new way of thinking
- loses baby teeth of adolescents, the way they look at themselves and
- motor skills improved: they play which usually have their world, is as unfamiliar to them as their reshaped
socialization involved bodies, and they sometimes feel just awkward in its use
- rough-and-tumble play - Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind at the
- need more flexible rules, shorter instruction time, and same time yet may lack effective strategies for
more free time to practice those older children choosing them
- better understanding of spatial concepts, causality, - Boys are more likely to fail to achieve a baseline of
categorization, inductive and deductive reasoning, proficiency in reading, mathematics, and science
conservation, numbers - Girls do better on verbal tasks that involve writing and
- starts to develop the ability to mentally juggle more language usage
concepts at the same time - Boys do better in activities that involve visual and
- development of the ability to regulate attention and spatial functions helpful in math and science
can now concentrate longer Young Adulthood
- can now use selective attention and inhibitory control - Acceptability of homosexual unions is growing,
especially in younger cohorts and in women
#BLEPP
- Emerging adults tend to have more sexual partners - An important feature of postformal thought is its
than in older age groups, but they have sex less integrative nature – adults interpret what they read, see,
frequently or hear in terms of its meaning for them
- Reflective Thinking: active, persistent, and careful - conscientiousness is the highest maybe due to result
consideration of information or beliefs of work experiences
- Continually question facts, draw inferences, and make Old Age
connections - Older adults tend to make the most of their abilities,
- Frequently engage in critical thinking often exploiting gains in one area to offset declines in
- At approx. 20-25 years of age, the brain forms new another
neurons, synapses, and dendritic connections, and the - Increases in agreeableness, self-confidence, warmth,
cortical regions that handle higher-level thinking emotional stability, and conscientiousness and declines
become fully myelinated in neuroticism, social vitality, and openness to
- Postformal Thought: characterized by the ability to experience
deal with inconsistency, contradiction, and - they tend to seek out activities and people that give
compromise them emotional gratification
- Draws on intuition and emotion as well as logic to - Older adults tend to use more emotion-focused coping
help people cope with situations such as social than younger people
dilemmas - Older adults are more religious than younger adults
- Acknowledges that there may be more than one valid - Older adults conserve resources by selecting
way of viewing an issue and that the world is made up meaningful goals, optimizing the resources they have
of shades of gray to achieve it, and compensating for the losses by using
- Traditionally, adulthood was defined by markers such resources in alternative ways to achieve their goals
as moving out of the family home, marriage, children, Issues involved in decisions about Death
full-time employment, or establishment of career o Brain Death – neurological condition which states
- Early marriage and family formation are associated the person is brain dead when all electrical activity
with poverty and substance use of the brain has ceased for a specific period of time
- Emerging adults with the highest well-being were
▪ Higher portions of the brains dies sooner than
those who were not yet married, had no children, attend
lower parts which facilitates breathing and
college, and lived away from their childhood home
Middle Adulthood heartbeat
- Middle-Aged people are in their prime ▪ That is why your brain could be dead but you still
- Individuals who scored the highest in the study of have heartbeat for the mean time
Schaie tended to have high educational levels, flexible o Euthanasia – good death, intended to end suffering
personalities, intact families, pursue cognitively or to allow terminally ill person to die with dignity
complex occupations and other activities, to be married ▪ Passive: involves withholding or discontinuing
to someone more cognitively advanced, to be satisfied treatment that might extend the life of a
with their accomplishments terminally ill patient such as life support
- Crystallized Intelligence increase through middle age ▪ Active: “mercy killing” involves action taken
and often until the end of life directly or deliberate to shorten life
- Mature adults show increasing competence in solving o Advance Directive – contains instructions for when
problems in their chosen field and how to discontinue futile medical care
- Specialized Knowledge or Expertise: form of
▪ Living will or a more formal legal document
crystallized intelligence that is related to the process of
called a durable power of attorney
encapsulation
- Adults do not usually depend on the brain’s ▪ Durable Power of Attorney: – appoints another
information-processing-machinery because some person if the maker of the document becomes
adult’s fluid intelligence becomes encapsulated incompetent to do so
(dedicated in handling specific kinds of knowledge) o Assisted Suicide – physician or someone else helps
- Expert thinking often seems automatic and intuitive a person bring about a self-inflicted death
- Such intuitive, experience-based thinking is also a o Suicide – self-inflicted death in which the person
characteristic of Postformal Thought acts intentionally, directly, and consciously
#BLEPP
o Death Seekers – clearly intend to end their lives at ✓ Alcohol and other drug use
the time they attempt suicide ✓ Mental disorders
▪ May last only a short time ✓ Modeling
o Death Initiators – clearly intent to end their lives, end
but they act out of a belief that the process is already
under the way and that they are simply hastening the Congratulations for reaching the end of this reviewer! <3
process
o Death Ignorers – do not believe that their self-
Remember to take rest if you need to and be less harsh to
inflicted death will mean the end of their existence
o Death Darers – experience mixed feelings, or yourself. Reward yourself, you deserve it. You can never
ambivalence, about their intent to die, even at the learn everything but at least you still did learn
moment of their attempt, and they show this something. Progress is progress. The most important
ambivalence in the act itself thing is you will get there!
▪ Their risk-taking behavior does not guarantee
death Claim that license!
o Subintentional Death – a death in which the victim
plays an indirect, hidden, partial, or unconscious role Congratulations, Future RPm!
o Suicide is officially the 11th cause of death in US
o Suicidal Ideation – thinking seriously about suicide
o Suicidal Plans – formulation of a specific method
for killing oneself
o Suicidal Attempts – the person survives from
attempts
o Emile Durkheim’s Suicide Types:
Altruistic – formalized suicides; dishonor to self,
family, or society
Egoistic – loss of social supports as an important
provocation for suicide
Anomic – result of marked disruptions, such as sudden
loss of job
Fatalistic – loss of control over one’s own destiny
o Freud believed that suicide indicated unconscious
hostility directed inward to the self rather than
outward to the person or situation causing the anger
o If a family member committed a suicide, there is an
increased risk that someone else will also
o Low levels of serotonin is associated with suicide
and with violent suicide attempts (low levels of
serotonin is linked with impulsivity, instability, and
the tendency to overreact to situation)
o The stress of a friend’s suicide or some other major
stress may affect several individuals who are
vulnerable because of existing psychological
disorders
o Hopelessness – pessimistic belief that one’s present
circumstances, problems, or mood will not change
o Dichotomous Thinking – viewing problems and
solutions in rigid either/or terms
o Common triggering factors:
✓ Stressful events
✓ Mood and thought changes

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