DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

AND
ENGINEERING

Subject Code: AD 3491

Subject Name: FUNDAMENTALS OF DATA SCIENCE AND ANALYTICS

(R2021)

PREPARED BY HOD
 UNIT IV ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
t-test for one sample – sampling distribution of t – t-test procedure – t-test for two
independent samples – p-value – statistical significance – t-test for two related samples.
F-test – ANOVA – Two- factor experiments – three f-tests – two-factor ANOVA
–Introduction to chi-square tests.
One sample t test
A one sample t test compares the mean with a hypothetical value. In most cases, the
hypothetical value comes from theory. For example, if you express your data as 'percent of
control', you can test whether the average differs significantly from 100. The hypothetical
value can also come from previous data. For example, compare whether the mean systolic
blood pressure differs from 135, a value determined in a previous study.
One sample t test: Overview
The one sample t test, also referred to as a single sample t test, is a statistical hypothesis
test used to determine whether the mean calculated from sample data collected from a
single group is different from a designated value specified by the researcher. This
designated value does not come from the data itself, but is an external value chosen for
scientific reasons. Often, this designated value is a mean previously established in a
population, a standard value of interest, or a mean concluded from other studies. Like all
hypothesis testing, the one sample t test determines if there is enough evidence reject the
null hypothesis (H0) in favor of an alternative hypothesis (H1). The null hypothesis for a
one sample t test can be stated as: "The population mean equals the specified mean value."
The alternative hypothesis for a one sample t test can be stated as: "The population mean is
different from the specified mean value."

The one sample t test differs from most statistical hypothesis tests because it does not
compare two separate groups or look at a relationship between two variables. It is a
straightforward comparison between data gathered on a single variable from one
population and a specified value defined by the researcher.

The one sample t test can be used to look for a difference in only one direction from the
standard value (a one-tailed t test) or can be used to look for a difference in either direction
from the standard value (a two-tailed t-test)
Requirements and Assumptions for a one sample t test
A one sample t test should be used only when data has been collected on one variable for a
single population and there is no comparison being made between groups.

For a valid one sample t test analysis, data values must be all of the following:
1. Independent (values are not related to one another):
The one sample t test assumes that all "errors" in the data are independent. The
term "error" refers to the difference between each value and the group mean. The
results of a t test only make sense when the scatter is random - that whatever factor
caused a value to be too high or too low affects only that one value. Prism cannot
test this assumption, but there are graphical ways to explore data to verify this
assumption is met.
2. Continuous measurements
A t test is only appropriate to apply in situations where data represent variables
that are continuous measurements. As they rely on the calculation of a mean value,
variables that are categorical should not be analyzed using a t test.
3. Obtained from a random sample of the population
The results of a t test should be based on a random sample and only be generalized
to the larger population from which samples were drawn.
4. Normally distributed in the population (data should resemble a bell-shaped curve
when plotted graphically)
As with all parametric hypothesis testing, the one sample t test assumes that you
have sampled your data from a population that follows a normal (or Gaussian)
distribution. While this assumption is not as important with large samples, it is
important with small sample sizes, especially less than 10. If your data do not come
from a Gaussian distribution, there are three options to accommodate this. One
option is to transform the values to make the distribution more Gaussian, perhaps
by transforming all values to their reciprocals or logarithms. Another choice is to
use the Wilcoxon signed rank nonparametric test instead of the t test. A final option
is to use the t test anyway, knowing that the t test is fairly robust to departures from
a Gaussian distribution with large samples.
How to format a one sample t test
Ideally, data for a one sample t test should be collected and entered as a single column from
which a mean value can be easily calculated. If data is entered on a table with multiple
subcolumns, Prism requires one of the following choices to be selected to perform the
analysis:
1. Each subcolumn of data can be analyzed separately
2. An average of the values in the columns across each row can be calculated, and the
analysis conducted on this new stack of means, or
3. All values in all columns can be treated as one sample of data (paying no attention to
which row or column any values are in).
How the one sample t test calculator works
Prism calculates the t ratio by dividing the difference between the actual and hypothetical
means by the standard error of the actual mean. The equation is written as follows, where x
is the calculated mean, μ is the hypothetical mean (specified value), S is the standard
deviation of the sample, and n is the sample size:

A p value is computed based on the calculated t ratio and the numbers of degrees of
freedom present (which equals sample size minus 1). The one sample t test calculator
assumes it is a two-tailed one sample t test, meaning you are testing for a difference in
either direction from the specified value.
How to interpret results of a one sample t test
As discussed, a one sample t test compares the mean of a single column of numbers against
a hypothetical mean. This hypothetical mean can be based upon a specific standard or
other external prediction. The test produces a P value which requires careful
interpretation.
The p value answers this question: If the data were sampled from a Gaussian population
with a mean equal to the hypothetical value you entered, what is the chance of randomly
selecting N data points and finding a mean as far (or further) from the hypothetical value as
observed here?
If the p value is large (usually defined to mean greater than 0.05), the data do not give you
any reason to conclude that the population mean differs from the designated value to
which it has been compared. This is not the same as saying that the true mean equals the
hypothetical value, but rather states that there is no evidence of a difference. Thus, we
cannot reject the null hypothesis (H0).
If the p value is small (usually defined to mean less than or equal to 0.05), then it is unlikely
that the discrepancy observed between the sample mean and hypothetical mean is due to a
coincidence arising from random sampling. There is evidence to reject the idea that the
difference is coincidental and conclude instead that the population has a mean that is
different from the hypothetical value to which it has been compared. The difference is
statistically significant, and the null hypothesis is therefore rejected.
If the null hypothesis is rejected, the question of whether the difference is scientifically
important still remains. The confidence interval can be a useful tool in answering this
question. Prism reports the 95% confidence interval for the difference between the actual
and hypothetical mean. In interpreting these results, one can be 95% sure that this range
includes the true difference. It requires scientific judgment to determine if this difference is
truly meaningful.
What is the T Distribution?
The t distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is symmetric and bell-
shaped like the normal distribution but with a shorter peak and thicker tails. It was
designed to factor in the greater uncertainty associated with small sample sizes.
The t distribution describes the variability of the distances between sample means and
the population mean when the population standard deviation is unknown and the data
approximately follow the normal distribution. This distribution has only one parameter,
the degrees of freedom, based on (but not equal to) the sample size.
The t distribution, also known as the Students T Distribution, was developed by William
Sealy Gosset in 1908 for use with small sample sizes. Back then, the Z distribution and the
corresponding Z-test were available to test means, but they are valid for large sample sizes.
There was no distribution designed for small samples.
When to Use the T Distribution
The essential uses for the t distribution are for finding:
o P-values for t-tests when testing the mean and for the coefficients in regression
analysis.
o Critical values that define the upper and lower bounds of a confidence interval.
Use the t distribution when you need to assess the mean and do not know the population
standard deviation. It’s particularly important to use it when you have a small (n < 30)
sample size. More about this aspect below!
n the context of a t-test, it represents the sampling distribution of t-values for your design
when the null hypothesis is true. Learn more about sampling distributions.
For more detailed information, read about using it to Find P values and Confidence
Intervals.
To find the critical t-values using a table, see my T-table. It includes instructions and
examples of how to use it.
T Distribution: Definition & Uses
What is the T Distribution?
The t distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is symmetric and bell-
shaped like the normal distribution but with a shorter peak and thicker tails. It was
designed to factor in the greater uncertainty associated with small sample sizes.
The t distribution describes the variability of the distances between sample means and
the population mean when the population standard deviation is unknown and the data
approximately follow the normal distribution. This distribution has only one parameter,
the degrees of freedom, based on (but not equal to) the sample size.
The t distribution, also known as the Students T Distribution, was developed by William
Sealy Gosset in 1908 for use with small sample sizes. Back then, the Z distribution and the
corresponding Z-test were available to test means, but they are valid for large sample sizes.
There was no distribution designed for small samples.
Gosset was the Chief Brewer at the Guinness Brewery in Dublin and was dedicated to
applying the scientific method to beer production. He needed a procedure for statistically
analyzing small batches of barley. After developing the t distribution for this purpose, the
brewery wanted Gosset to publish using a pen name so competitors would not learn about
their methods. Hence, he published using the pseudonym of Student. That’s why we have
the “Student T-test” today!
When to Use the T Distribution
The essential uses for the t distribution are for finding:
o P-values for t-tests when testing the mean and for the coefficients in regression
analysis.
o Critical values that define the upper and lower bounds of a confidence interval.
Use the t distribution when you need to assess the mean and do not know the population
standard deviation. It’s particularly important to use it when you have a small (n < 30)
sample size. More about this aspect below!
In the context of a t-test, it represents the sampling distribution of t-values for your design
when the null hypothesis is true. Learn more about sampling distributions.
For more detailed information, read about using it to Find P values and Confidence
Intervals.
To find the critical t-values using a table, see my T-table. It includes instructions and
examples of how to use it.
Parameter – Degrees of Freedom
The t distribution has only one parameter, the degrees of freedom (DF). In t-tests, DF are
linked to the sample size. For 1-sample and paired t-tests, DF = N – 1. For 2-sample t-tests,
it equals N – 2. Hence, as the sample size increases, the DF also increases. Learn more
about degrees of freedom. Let’s see how changing the degrees of freedom affect it.
This graph illustrates how Gosset designed the t distribution to handle the greater
uncertainty inherent with smaller samples. As the degrees of freedom increase, the curve
pulls in tighter around zero—the tails become thinner and the peak becomes taller. The
blue curve has the fewest DF (3) and it has the thickest tails. Conversely, the green curve
has the most DF (20) and the thinnest tails.
The changing shapes are how it factors in the greater uncertainty when you have a smaller
sample. Smaller samples have thicker tails because small samples are more likely to
produce unusual means than larger samples. However, as the sample size
increases, outliers become rarer, and the tails thin out.
Because the t distribution is a probability distribution, t-tests can use it to calculate
probabilities like the p-value while factoring in the sample size.
At around 30 degrees of freedom, the t distribution closely approximates the
standard normal distribution (Z-distribution), as shown below. Consequently, when your
sample size exceeds ~30, t-tests and Z-tests provide very similar results.

In this graph, the blue curve is the standard normal distribution, while the red dashed
curve is the t distribution with 30 degrees of freedom.
What is the two-sample t-test?
The two-sample t-test (also known as the independent samples t-test) is a method used to
test whether the unknown population means of two groups are equal or not.
Is this the same as an A/B test?
Yes, a two-sample t-test is used to analyze the results from A/B tests.
When can I use the test?
You can use the test when your data values are independent, are randomly sampled from
two normal populations and the two independent groups have equal variances.
What if I have more than two groups?
 Use a multiple comparison method. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is one such method.
Other multiple comparison methods include the Tukey-Kramer test of all pairwise
differences, analysis of means (ANOM) to compare group means to the overall mean or
Dunnett’s test to compare each group mean to a control mean.
What if the variances for my two groups are not equal?
You can still use the two-sample t-test. You use a different estimate of the standard
deviation.
What if my data isn’t nearly normally distributed?
If your sample sizes are very small, you might not be able to test for normality. You might
need to rely on your understanding of the data. When you cannot safely assume normality,
you can perform a nonparametric test that doesn’t assume normality.
Using the two-sample t-test
The sections below discuss what is needed to perform the test, checking our data, how to
perform the test and statistical details.
What do we need?
For the two-sample t-test, we need two variables. One variable defines the two groups. The
second variable is the measurement of interest.
We also have an idea, or hypothesis, that the means of the underlying populations for the
two groups are different. Here are a couple of examples:
 We have students who speak English as their first language and students who do not. All
students take a reading test. Our two groups are the native English speakers and the non-
native speakers. Our measurements are the test scores. Our idea is that the mean test
scores for the underlying populations of native and non-native English speakers are not the
same. We want to know if the mean score for the population of native English speakers is
different from the people who learned English as a second language.
 We measure the grams of protein in two different brands of energy bars. Our two groups
are the two brands. Our measurement is the grams of protein for each energy bar. Our idea
is that the mean grams of protein for the underlying populations for the two brands may be
different. We want to know if we have evidence that the mean grams of protein for the two
brands of energy bars is different or not.
Two-sample t-test assumptions
To conduct a valid test:
 Data values must be independent. Measurements for one observation do not affect
measurements for any other observation.
 Data in each group must be obtained via a random sample from the population.
 Data in each group are normally distributed.
 Data values are continuous.
 The variances for the two independent groups are equal.
 For very small groups of data, it can be hard to test these requirements. Below, we'll
discuss how to check the requirements using software and what to do when a requirement
isn’t met.
Two-sample t-test example
One way to measure a person’s fitness is to measure their body fat percentage. Average
body fat percentages vary by age, but according to some guidelines, the normal range for
men is 15-20% body fat, and the normal range for women is 20-25% body fat.
Our sample data is from a group of men and women who did workouts at a gym three times
a week for a year. Then, their trainer measured the body fat. The table below shows the
data.
Table 1: Body fat percentage data grouped by gender

Group Body Fat Percentages

Men 13.3 6.0 20.0 8.0 14.0

19.0 18.0 25.0 16.0 24.0

15.0 1.0 15.0

Women 22.0 16.0 21.7 21.0 30.0

26.0 12.0 23.2 28.0 23.0

You can clearly see some overlap in the body fat measurements for the men and women in
our sample, but also some differences. Just by looking at the data, it's hard to draw any
solid conclusions about whether the underlying populations of men and women at the gym
have the same mean body fat. That is the value of statistical tests – they provide a common,
statistically valid way to make decisions, so that everyone makes the same decision on the
same set of data values.
Checking the data
Let’s start by answering: Is the two-sample t-test an appropriate method to evaluate the
difference in body fat between men and women?
 The data values are independent. The body fat for any one person does not depend on the
body fat for another person.
 We assume the people measured represent a simple random sample from the population of
members of the gym.
 We assume the data are normally distributed, and we can check this assumption.
 The data values are body fat measurements. The measurements are continuous.
 We assume the variances for men and women are equal, and we can check this assumption.
Before jumping into analysis, we should always take a quick look at the data. The figure
below shows histograms and summary statistics for the men and women.

Figure 1: Histogram and summary statistics for the body fat data
The two histograms are on the same scale. From a quick look, we can see that there are no
very unusual points, or outliers. The data look roughly bell-shaped, so our initial idea of a
normal distribution seems reasonable.
Examining the summary statistics, we see that the standard deviations are similar. This
supports the idea of equal variances. We can also check this using a test for variances.
Based on these observations, the two-sample t-test appears to be an appropriate method to
test for a difference in means.
How to perform the two-sample t-test
For each group, we need the average, standard deviation and sample size. These are shown
in the table below.
Table 2: Average, standard deviation and sample size statistics grouped by gender

Group Sample Size (n) Average (X-bar) Standard deviation (s)

Women 10 22.29 5.32

Men 13 14.95 6.84

Without doing any testing, we can see that the averages for men and women in our samples
are not the same. But how different are they? Are the averages “close enough” for us to
conclude that mean body fat is the same for the larger population of men and women at the
gym? Or are the averages too different for us to make this conclusion?
We'll further explain the principles underlying the two sample t-test in the statistical
details section below, but let's first proceed through the steps from beginning to end. We
start by calculating our test statistic. This calculation begins with finding the difference
between the two averages:
22.29−14.95=7.3422.29−14.95=7.34
This difference in our samples estimates the difference between the population means for
the two groups.
Next, we calculate the pooled standard deviation. This builds a combined estimate of the
overall standard deviation. The estimate adjusts for different group sizes. First, we
calculate the pooled variance:

Next, we take the square root of the pooled variance to get the pooled standard deviation.
This is:
√38.88=6.2438.88=6.24
We now have all the pieces for our test statistic. We have the difference of the averages, the
pooled standard deviation and the sample sizes. We calculate our test statistic as follows:

To evaluate the difference between the means in order to make a decision about our gym
programs, we compare the test statistic to a theoretical value from the t-distribution. This
activity involves four steps:
1. We decide on the risk we are willing to take for declaring a significant difference. For
the body fat data, we decide that we are willing to take a 5% risk of saying that the
unknown population means for men and women are not equal when they really are. In
statistics-speak, the significance level, denoted by α, is set to 0.05. It is a good practice
to make this decision before collecting the data and before calculating test statistics.
2. We calculate a test statistic. Our test statistic is 2.80.
3. We find the theoretical value from the t-distribution based on our null hypothesis which
states that the means for men and women are equal. Most statistics books have look-up
tables for the t-distribution. You can also find tables online. The most likely situation is
that you will use software and will not use printed tables.

To find this value, we need the significance level (α = 0.05) and the degrees of freedom.
The degrees of freedom (df) are based on the sample sizes of the two groups. For the
body fat data, this is:

The t value with α = 0.05 and 21 degrees of freedom is 2.080.

4. We compare the value of our statistic (2.80) to the t value. Since 2.80 > 2.080, we reject
the null hypothesis that the mean body fat for men and women are equal, and conclude
that we have evidence body fat in the population is different between men and women.

Statistical details
Let’s look at the body fat data and the two-sample t-test using statistical terms.
Our null hypothesis is that the underlying population means are the same. The null
hypothesis is written as:
Ho:μ1=μ2
The alternative hypothesis is that the means are not equal. This is written as:
Ho:μ1≠μ2
We calculate the average for each group, and then calculate the difference between the two
averages. This is written as:

We calculate the pooled standard deviation. This assumes that the underlying population
variances are equal. The pooled variance formula is written as:

The formula shows the sample size for the first group as n1 and the second group as n2. The
standard deviations for the two groups are s1 and s2. This estimate allows the two groups to
have different numbers of observations. The pooled standard deviation is the square root
of the variance and is written as sp.
What if your sample sizes for the two groups are the same? In this situation, the pooled
estimate of variance is simply the average of the variances for the two

The numerator of the test statistic is the difference between the two group averages. It
estimates the difference between the two unknown population means. The denominator is
an estimate of the standard error of the difference between the two unknown population
means.
 Technical Detail: For a single mean, the standard error is . The formula above
extends this idea to two groups that use a pooled estimate for s (standard deviation), and
that can have different group sizes.
We then compare the test statistic to a t value with our chosen alpha value and the degrees
of freedom for our data. Using the body fat data as an example, we set α = 0.05. The degrees
of freedom (df) are based on the group sizes and are calculated as:

The formula
shows the sample size for the first group as n1 and the second group as n2. Statisticians
write the t value with α = 0.05 and 21 degrees of freedom as:

The t value with α = 0.05 and 21 degrees of freedom is 2.080. There are
two possible results from our comparison:
 The test statistic is lower than the t value. You fail to reject the hypothesis of equal means.
You conclude that the data support the assumption that the men and women have the same
average body fat.
 The test statistic is higher than the t value. You reject the hypothesis of equal means. You
do not conclude that men and women have the same average body fat.
t-Test with unequal variances
When the variances for the two groups are not equal, we cannot use the pooled estimate of
standard deviation. Instead, we take the standard error for each group separately. The test
statistic is:

The numerator of the test statistic is the same. It is the

difference between the averages of the two groups. The denominator is an estimate of the
overall standard error of the difference between means. It is based on the separate
standard error for each group.
The degrees of freedom calculation for the t value is more complex with unequal variances
than equal variances and is usually left up to statistical software packages. The key point to
remember is that if you cannot use the pooled estimate of standard deviation, then you
cannot use the simple formula for the degrees of freedom.
Testing for normality
The normality assumption is more important when the two groups have small sample sizes
than for larger sample sizes.
Normal distributions are symmetric, which means they are “even” on both sides of the
center. Normal distributions do not have extreme values, or outliers. You can check these
two features of a normal distribution with graphs. Earlier, we decided that the body fat
data was “close enough” to normal to go ahead with the assumption of normality. The
figure below shows a normal quantile plot for men and women, and supports our decision.
Figure 2: Normal quantile plot of the body fat measurements for men and women
You can also perform a formal test for normality using software. The figure above shows
results of testing for normality with JMP software. We test each group separately. Both the
test for men and the test for women show that we cannot reject the hypothesis of a normal
distribution. We can go ahead with the assumption that the body fat data for men and for
women are normally distributed.
Testing for unequal variances
Testing for unequal variances is complex. We won’t show the calculations in detail, but will
show the results from JMP software. The figure below shows results of a test for unequal
variances for the body fat data.

Figure 3: Test for unequal variances for the body fat data
Without diving into details of the different types of tests for unequal variances, we will use
the F test. Before testing, we decide to accept a 10% risk of concluding the variances are
equal when they are not. This means we have set α = 0.10.
Like most statistical software, JMP shows the p-value for a test. This is the likelihood of
finding a more extreme value for the test statistic than the one observed. It’s difficult to
calculate by hand. For the figure above, with the F test statistic of 1.654, the p-value is
0.4561. This is larger than our α value: 0.4561 > 0.10. We fail to reject the hypothesis of
equal variances. In practical terms, we can go ahead with the two-sample t-test with the
assumption of equal variances for the two groups.
Understanding p-values
Using a visual, you can check to see if your test statistic is a more extreme value in the
distribution. The figure below shows a t-distribution with 21 degrees of freedom.

Figure 4: t-distribution with 21 degrees of freedom and α = .05

Since our test is two-sided and we have set α = .05, the figure shows that the value of 2.080
“cuts off” 2.5% of the data in each of the two tails. Only 5% of the data overall is further out
in the tails than 2.080. Because our test statistic of 2.80 is beyond the cut-off point, we
reject the null hypothesis of equal means.
Putting it all together with software
The figure below shows results for the two-sample t-test for the body fat data from JMP
software.

Figure 5: Results for the two-sample t-test from JMP software

The results for the two-sample t-test that assumes equal variances are the same as our
calculations earlier. The test statistic is 2.79996. The software shows results for a two-
sided test and for one-sided tests. The two-sided test is what we want (Prob > |t|). Our null
hypothesis is that the mean body fat for men and women is equal. Our alternative
hypothesis is that the mean body fat is not equal. The one-sided tests are for one-sided
alternative hypotheses – for example, for a null hypothesis that mean body fat for men is
less than that for women.
We can reject the hypothesis of equal mean body fat for the two groups and conclude that
we have evidence body fat differs in the population between men and women. The
software shows a p-value of 0.0107. We decided on a 5% risk of concluding the mean body
fat for men and women are different, when they are not. It is important to make this
decision before doing the statistical test.
The figure also shows the results for the t-test that does not assume equal variances. This
test does not use the pooled estimate of the standard deviation. As was mentioned above,
this test also has a complex formula for degrees of freedom. You can see that the degrees of
freedom are 20.9888. The software shows a p-value of 0.0086. Again, with our decision of a
5% risk, we can reject the null hypothesis of equal mean body fat for men and women.
T-test for two related samples
The paired sample t-test, sometimes called the dependent sample t-test, is a statistical
procedure used to determine whether the mean difference between two sets of
observations is zero. In a paired sample t-test, each subject or entity is measured twice,
resulting in pairs of observations. Common applications of the paired sample t-test include
case-control studies or repeated-measures designs. Suppose you are interested in
evaluating the effectiveness of a company training program. One approach you might
consider would be to measure the performance of a sample of employees before and after
completing the program, and analyze the differences using a paired sample t-test.
Hypotheses
Like many statistical procedures, the paired sample t-test has two competing hypotheses,
the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis assumes that the
true mean difference between the paired samples is zero. Under this model, all observable
differences are explained by random variation. Conversely, the alternative hypothesis
assumes that the true mean difference between the paired samples is not equal to zero. The
alternative hypothesis can take one of several forms depending on the expected outcome. If
the direction of the difference does not matter, a two-tailed hypothesis is used. Otherwise,
an upper-tailed or lower-tailed hypothesis can be used to increase the power of the test.
The null hypothesis remains the same for each type of alternative hypothesis. The paired
sample t-test hypotheses are formally defined below:
The null hypothesis (H0H0) assumes that the true mean difference (μdμd) is equal to zero.
• The two-tailed alternative hypothesis (H1H1) assumes that μdμd is not equal to zero.
• The upper-tailed alternative hypothesis (H1H1) assumes that μdμd is greater than zero.
• The lower-tailed alternative hypothesis (H1H1) assumes that μdμd is less than zero.
The mathematical representations of the null and alternative hypotheses are defined
below:
H0: μd = 0H0: μd = 0
H1: μd ≠ 0H1: μd ≠ 0 (two-tailed)
H1: μd > 0H1: μd > 0 (upper-tailed)
H1: μd < 0H1: μd < 0 (lower-tailed)
Note. It is important to remember that hypotheses are never about data, they are about the
processes which produce the data. In the formulas above, the value of μdμd is unknown.
The goal of hypothesis testing is to determine the hypothesis (null or alternative) with
which the data are more consistent.
Assumptions
As a parametric procedure (a procedure which estimates unknown parameters), the paired
sample t-test makes several assumptions. Although t-tests are quite robust, it is good
practice to evaluate the degree of deviation from these assumptions in order to assess the
quality of the results. In a paired sample t-test, the observations are defined as the
differences between two sets of values, and each assumption refers to these differences,
not the original data values. The paired sample t-test has four main assumptions:
• The dependent variable must be continuous (interval/ratio).
• The observations are independent of one another.
• The dependent variable should be approximately normally distributed.
• The dependent variable should not contain any outliers.
Level of Measurement
The paired sample t-test requires the sample data to be numeric and continuous, as it is
based on the normal distribution. Continuous data can take on any value within a range
(income, height, weight, etc.). The opposite of continuous data is discrete data, which can
only take on a few values (Low, Medium, High, etc.). Occasionally, discrete data can be used
to approximate a continuous scale, such as with Likert-type scales.
Independence
Independence of observations is usually not testable, but can be reasonably assumed if the
data collection process was random without replacement. In our example, it is reasonable
to assume that the participating employees are independent of one another.
Normality
To test the assumption of normality, a variety of methods are available, but the simplest is
to inspect the data visually using a tool like a histogram (Figure 1). Real-world data are
almost never perfectly normal, so this assumption can be considered reasonably met if the
shape looks approximately symmetric and bell-shaped. The data in the example figure
below is approximately normally distributed.

Histogram of an approximately normally distributed variable.

Procedure
The four steps are listed below:
determine whether the results provide sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis in
favor of the alternative hypothesis.
Interpretation
There are two types of significance to consider when interpreting the results of a paired
sample t-test, statistical significance and practical significance.
Statistical Significance
Statistical significance is determined by looking at the p-value. The p-value gives the
probability of observing the test results under the null hypothesis. The lower the p-value,
the lower the probability of obtaining a result like the one that was observed if the null
hypothesis was true. Thus, a low p-value indicates decreased support for the null
hypothesis. However, the possibility that the null hypothesis is true and that we simply
obtained a very rare result can never be ruled out completely. The cutoff value for
determining statistical significance is ultimately decided on by the researcher, but usually a
value of .05 or less is chosen. This corresponds to a 5% (or less) chance of obtaining a
result like the one that was observed if the null hypothesis was true.
Practical Significance
Practical significance depends on the subject matter. It is not uncommon, especially with
large sample sizes, to observe a result that is statistically significant but not practically
significant. In most cases, both types of significance are required in order to draw
meaningful conclusions.
F Test
F test is a statistical test that is used in hypothesis testing to check whether the variances of
two populations or two samples are equal or not. In an f test, the data follows an f
distribution. This test uses the f statistic to compare two variances by dividing them. An f
test can either be one-tailed or two-tailed depending upon the parameters of the problem.
The f value obtained after conducting an f test is used to perform the one-way ANOVA
(analysis of variance) test. In this article, we will learn more about an f test, the f statistic,
its critical value, formula and how to conduct an f test for hypothesis testing.
What is F Test in Statistics?
F test is statistics is a test that is performed on an f distribution. A two-tailed f test is used
to check whether the variances of the two given samples (or populations) are equal or not.
However, if an f test checks whether one population variance is either greater than or
lesser than the other, it becomes a one-tailed hypothesis f test.
F Test Definition
F test can be defined as a test that uses the f test statistic to check whether the variances of
two samples (or populations) are equal to the same value. To conduct an f test, the
population should follow an f distribution and the samples must be independent events. On
conducting the hypothesis test, if the results of the f test are statistically significant then the
null hypothesis can be rejected otherwise it cannot be rejected.
F Test Formula
The f test is used to check the equality of variances using hypothesis testing. The f test
formula for different hypothesis tests is given as follows:
F Test Critical Value
A critical value is a point that a test statistic is compared to in order to decide whether to
reject or not to reject the null hypothesis. Graphically, the critical value divides a
distribution into the acceptance and rejection regions. If the test statistic falls in the
rejection region then the null hypothesis can be rejected otherwise it cannot be rejected.
The steps to find the f test critical value at a specific alpha level (or significance level), α, are
as follows:
 Find the degrees of freedom of the first sample. This is done by subtracting 1 from the
first sample size. Thus, x = n1−1.
 Determine the degrees of freedom of the second sample by subtracting 1 from the
sample size. This given y = n2−1.
 If it is a right-tailed test then αα is the significance level. For a left-tailed test 1 - α is the
alpha level. However, if it is a two-tailed test then the significance level is given by α / 2.
 The F table is used to find the critical value at the required alpha level.
 The intersection of the x column and the y row in the f table will give the f test critical
value.
ANOVA F Test
The one-way ANOVA is an example of an f test. ANOVA stands for analysis of variance. It is
used to check the variability of group means and the associated variability in observations
within that group. The F test statistic is used to conduct the ANOVA test. The hypothesis is
given as follows:
H0H0: The means of all groups are equal.
H1H1: The means of all groups are not equal.
Test Statistic: F = explained variance / unexplained variance
Decision rule: If F > F critical value then reject the null hypothesis.
To determine the critical value of an ANOVA f test the degrees of freedom are given
by df1df1 = K - 1 and df1df1 = N - K, where N is the overall sample size and K is the number
of groups.

 Example 1: A research team wants to study the effects of a new drug on insomnia. 8
tests were conducted with a variance of 600 initially. After 7 months 6 tests were
conducted with a variance of 400. At a significance level of 0.05 was there any
improvement in the results after 7 months?
Solution: As the variance needs to be compared, the f test needs to be used.
As 1.5 < 4.88, thus, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected and there is not enough evidence
to conclude that there was an improvement in insomnia after using the new drug.
Answer: Fail to reject the null hypothesis.

Example 2: Pizza delivery times of two cities are given below

City 1: Number of delivery times observed = 28, Variance = 38
City 2: Number of delivery times observed = 25, Variance = 83
Check if the delivery times of city 1 are lesser than city 2 at a 0.05 alpha level.

As 0.4578 < 0.5181, thus, the null hypothesis can be rejected and it can be concluded that
there is enough evidence to support the claim that the delivery times in city 1 are less than
in city 2.
Answer: Reject the null hypothesis
Example 3: A toy manufacturer wants to get batteries for toys. A team collected 41 samples
from supplier A and the variance was 110 hours. The team also collected 21 samples from
supplier B with a variance of 65 hours. At a 0.05 alpha level determine if there is a
difference in the variances.
Solution: This is an example of a two-tailed F test. Thus, the alpha level is 0.05 / 2 = 0.025
 ANOVA
Analysis of Variance also termed as ANOVA. It is procedure followed by statisticans to
check the potential difference between scale-level dependent variable by a nominal-level
variable having two or more categories. It was developed by Ronald Fisher in 1918 and it
extends t-test and z-test which compares only nominal level variable to have just two
categories.
Types of ANOVA
ANOVAs are majorly of three types:
 One-way ANOVA - One-way ANOVA have only one independent variable and refers
to numbers in this variable. For example, to assess differences in IQ by country, you
can have 1, 2, and more countries data to compare.
 Two-way ANOVA - Two way ANOVA uses two independent variables. For example,
to access differences in IQ by country (variable 1) and gender(variable 2). Here you
can examine the interaction between two independent variables. Such Interactions
may indicate that differences in IQ is not uniform across a independent variable. For
examples females may have higher IQ score over males and have very high score
over males in Europe than in America.
Two-way ANOVAs are also termed as factorial ANOVA and can be balanced as well as
unbalanced. Balanced refers to having same number of participants in each group
where as unbalanced refers to having different number of participants in each group.
Following special kind of ANOVAs can be used to handle unbalanced groups.
o Hierarchical approach(Type 1) -If data was not intentionaly unbalanced and
has some type of hierarchy between the factors.
 o Classical experimental approach(Type 2) - If data was not intentionaly
unbalanced and has no hierarchy between the factors.
o Full Regression approach(Type 3) - If data was intentionaly unbalanced
because of population.
 N-way or Multivariate ANOVA - N-way ANOVA have multiple independent variables.
For example, to assess differences in IQ by country, gender, age etc. simultaneously,
N-way ANOVA is to be deployed.
ANOVA Test Procedure
Following are the general steps to carry out ANOVA.
 Setup null and alternative hypothesis where null hypothesis states that there is no
significant difference among the groups. And alternative hypothesis assumes that
there is a significant difference among the groups.
 Calculate F-ratio and probability of F.
 Compare p-value of the F-ratio with the established alpha or significance level.
 If p-value of F is less than 0.5 then reject the null hypothesis.
 If null hypothesis is rejected, conclude that mean of groups are not equal.
Two factor ANOVA
The ANOVA tests described above are called one-factor ANOVAs. There is one treatment or
grouping factor with k>2 levels and we wish to compare the means across the different
categories of this factor. The factor might represent different diets, different classifications
of risk for disease (e.g., osteoporosis), different medical treatments, different age groups, or
different racial/ethnic groups. There are situations where it may be of interest to compare
means of a continuous outcome across two or more factors. For example, suppose a clinical
trial is designed to compare five different treatments for joint pain in patients with
osteoarthritis. Investigators might also hypothesize that there are differences in the
outcome by sex. This is an example of a two-factor ANOVA where the factors are treatment
(with 5 levels) and sex (with 2 levels). In the two-factor ANOVA, investigators can assess
whether there are differences in means due to the treatment, by sex or whether there is a
difference in outcomes by the combination or interaction of treatment and sex. Higher
order ANOVAs are conducted in the same way as one-factor ANOVAs presented here and
the computations are again organized in ANOVA tables with more rows to distinguish the
different sources of variation (e.g., between treatments, between men and women). The
following example illustrates the approach.
Example:
Consider the clinical trial outlined above in which three competing treatments for joint
pain are compared in terms of their mean time to pain relief in patients with osteoarthritis.
Because investigators hypothesize that there may be a difference in time to pain relief in
men versus women, they randomly assign 15 participating men to one of the three
competing treatments and randomly assign 15 participating women to one of the three
competing treatments (i.e., stratified randomization). Participating men and women do not
 know to which treatment they are assigned. They are instructed to take the assigned
medication when they experience joint pain and to record the time, in minutes, until the
pain subsides. The data (times to pain relief) are shown below and are organized by the
assigned treatment and sex of the participant.
Table of Time to Pain Relief by Treatment and Sex
Treatment Male Female
A 12 21
15 19
16 18
17 24
14 25
B 14 21
17 20
19 23
20 27
17 25
C 25 37
27 34
29 36
24 26
22 29

The analysis in two-factor ANOVA is similar to that illustrated above for one-factor ANOVA.
The computations are again organized in an ANOVA table, but the total variation is
Source of Sums of Squares Degrees of Mean Squares F P-Value
Variation (SS) freedom (MS)
(df)
Model 967.0 5 193.4 20.7 0.0001
Treatment 651.5 2 325.7 34.8 0.0001
Sex 313.6 1 313.6 33.5 0.0001
Treatment 1.9 2 0.9 0.1 0.9054
* Sex
Error or 224.4 24 9.4
Residual
Total 1191.4 29
partitioned into that due to the main effect of treatment, the main effect of sex and the
interaction effect. The results of the analysis are shown below (and were generated with a
statistical computing package - here we focus on interpretation).
ANOVA Table for Two-Factor ANOVA
There are 4 statistical tests in the ANOVA table above. The first test is an overall test to
assess whether there is a difference among the 6 cell means (cells are defined by treatment
and sex). The F statistic is 20.7 and is highly statistically significant with p=0.0001. When
the overall test is significant, focus then turns to the factors that may be driving the
significance (in this example, treatment, sex or the interaction between the two). The next
three statistical tests assess the significance of the main effect of treatment, the main effect
of sex and the interaction effect. In this example, there is a highly significant main effect of
treatment (p=0.0001) and a highly significant main effect of sex (p=0.0001). The
interaction between the two does not reach statistical significance (p=0.91). The table
below contains the mean times to pain relief in each of the treatments for men and women
(Note that each sample mean is computed on the 5 observations measured under that
experimental condition).
Mean Time to Pain Relief by Treatment and Gender
Treatment Male Female
A 14.8 21.4
B 17.4 23.2
C 25.4 32.4

Treatment A appears to be the most efficacious treatment for both men and women. The
mean times to relief are lower in Treatment A for both men and women and highest in
Treatment C for both men and women. Across all treatments, women report longer times to
pain relief (See below).
 Notice that there is the same pattern of time to pain relief across treatments in both men
and women (treatment effect). There is also a sex effect - specifically, time to pain relief is
longer in women in every treatment.
Suppose that the same clinical trial is replicated in a second clinical site and the following
data are observed.
Table - Time to Pain Relief by Treatment and Sex - Clinical Site 2
Treatment Male Female
A 22 21
25 19
26 18
27 24
24 25
B 14 21
17 20
19 23
20 27
17 25
C 15 37
17 34
19 36
14 26
12 29

The ANOVA table for the data measured in clinical site 2 is shown below.
Table - Summary of Two-Factor ANOVA - Clinical Site 2
Source of Sums of Squares Degrees of Mean Squares F P-Value
Variation (SS) freedom (MS)
(df)
Model 907.0 5 181.4 19.4 0.0001
Treatment 71.5 2 35.7 3.8 0.0362
Sex 313.6 1 313.6 33.5 0.0001
Treatment 521.9 2 260.9 27.9 0.0001
* Sex
Error or 224.4 24 9.4
Residual
Total 1131.4 29

Notice that the overall test is significant (F=19.4, p=0.0001), there is a significant treatment
effect, sex effect and a highly significant interaction effect. The table below contains the
mean times to relief in each of the treatments for men and women.
Table - Mean Time to Pain Relief by Treatment and Gender - Clinical Site 2
Treatment Male Female
A 24.8 21.4
B 17.4 23.2
C 15.4 32.4
Notice that now the differences in mean time to pain relief among the treatments depend
on sex. Among men, the mean time to pain relief is highest in Treatment A and lowest in
Treatment C. Among women, the reverse is true. This is an interaction effect (see below).

Notice above that the treatment effect varies depending on sex. Thus, we cannot
summarize an overall treatment effect (in men, treatment C is best, in women, treatment A
is best).
When interaction effects are present, some investigators do not examine main effects (i.e.,
do not test for treatment effect because the effect of treatment depends on sex). This issue
is complex and is discussed in more detail in a later module.
Chi-squared Test
A chi-squared test (symbolically represented as χ2) is basically a data analysis on the basis
of observations of a random set of variables. Usually, it is a comparison of two statistical
data sets. This test was introduced by Karl Pearson in 1900 for categorical data analysis
and distribution. So it was mentioned as Pearson’s chi-squared test.
The chi-square test is used to estimate how likely the observations that are made would be,
by considering the assumption of the null hypothesis as true.
A hypothesis is a consideration that a given condition or statement might be true, which we
can test afterwards. Chi-squared tests are usually created from a sum of squared falsities or
errors over the sample variance
Chi-Square Distribution
When we consider, the null speculation is true, the sampling distribution of the test statistic
is called as chi-squared distribution. The chi-squared test helps to determine whether there
is a notable difference between the normal frequencies and the observed frequencies in
one or more classes or categories. It gives the probability of independent variables.
Note: Chi-squared test is applicable only for categorical data, such as men and women
falling under the categories of Gender, Age, Height, etc.

Finding P-Value
P stands for probability here. To calculate the p-value, the chi-square test is used in
statistics. The different values of p indicates the different hypothesis interpretation, are
given below:
 P≤ 0.05; Hypothesis rejected
 P>.05; Hypothesis Accepted
Probability is all about chance or risk or uncertainty. It is the possibility of the outcome of
the sample or the occurrence of an event. But when we talk about statistics, it is more about
how we handle various data using different techniques. It helps to represent complicated
data or bulk data in a very easy and understandable way. It describes the collection,
analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organization of data. The concept of
both probability and statistics is related to the chi-squared test.
Properties
The following are the important properties of the chi-square test:
 Two times the number of degrees of freedom is equal to the variance.
 The number of degree of freedom is equal to the mean distribution
 The chi-square distribution curve approaches the normal distribution when the
degree of freedom increases.
Formula
The chi-squared test is done to check if there is any difference between the observed value
and expected value. The formula for chi-square can be written as;
or
χ2 = ∑(Oi – Ei)2/Ei
where Oi is the observed value and Ei is the expected value.

Chi-Square Test of Independence

The chi-square test of independence also known as the chi-square test of association which
is used to determine the association between the categorical variables. It is considered as
a non-parametric test. It is mostly used to test statistical independence.
The chi-square test of independence is not appropriate when the categorical variables
represent the pre-test and post-test observations. For this test, the data must meet the
following requirements:
 Two categorical variables
 Relatively large sample size
 Categories of variables (two or more)
 Independence of observations
Example of Categorical Data
Let us take an example of a categorical data where there is a society of 1000 residents with
four neighbourhoods, P, Q, R and S. A random sample of 650 residents of the society is
taken whose occupations are doctors, engineers and teachers. The null hypothesis is that
each person’s neighbourhood of residency is independent of the person’s professional
division. The data are categorised as:

Categories P Q R S Total

Doctors 90 60 104 95 349

Engineers 30 50 51 20 151

Teachers 30 40 45 35 150

Total 150 150 200 150 650

Assume the sample living in neighbourhood P, 150, to estimate what proportion of the
whole 1,000 people live in neighbourhood P. In the same way, we take 349/650 to calculate
what ratio of the 1,000 are doctors. By the supposition of independence under the
hypothesis, we should “expect” the number of doctors in neighbourhood P is;
150 x 349/650 ≈ 80.54
So by the chi-square test formula for that particular cell in the table, we get;
(Observed – Expected)2/Expected Value = (90-80.54)2/80.54 ≈ 1.11
Some of the exciting facts about the Chi-square test are given below:
The Chi-square statistic can only be used on numbers. We cannot use them for data in
terms of percentages, proportions, means or similar statistical contents. Suppose, if we
have 20% of 400 people, we need to convert it to a number, i.e. 80, before running a test
statistic.
A chi-square test will give us a p-value. The p-value will tell us whether our test results are
significant or not.
However, to perform a chi-square test and get the p-value, we require two pieces of
information:
(1) Degrees of freedom. That’s just the number of categories minus 1.
(2) The alpha level(α). You or the researcher chooses this. The usual alpha level is 0.05
(5%), but you could also have other levels like 0.01 or 0.10.
In elementary statistics, we usually get questions along with the degrees of freedom(DF)
and the alpha level. Thus, we don’t usually have to figure out what they are. To get the
degrees of freedom, count the categories and subtract 1.
Table
The chi-square distribution table with three probability levels is provided here. The
statistic here is used to examine whether distributions of certain variables vary from one
another. The categorical variable will produce data in the categories and numerical
variables will produce data in numerical form.
The distribution of χ2 with (r-1)(c-1) degrees of freedom(DF), is represented in the table
given below. Here, r represents the number of rows in the two-way table and c represents
the number of columns.

DF Value of P

0.05 0.01 0.001

1 3.84 6.64 10.83

2 5.99 9.21 13.82

3 7.82 11.35 16.27

4 9.49 13.28 18.47

5 11.07 15.09 20.52

6 12.59 16.81 22.46

7 14.07 18.48 24.32

8 15.51 20.09 26.13

9 16.92 21.67 27.88

10 18.31 23.21 29.59

11 19.68 24.73 31.26

12 21.03 26.22 32.91

13 22.36 27.69 34.53

14 23.69 29.14 36.12

15 25.00 30.58 37.70

16 26.30 32.00 39.25

17 27.59 33.41 40.79

18 28.87 34.81 42.31

19 30.14 36.19 43.82

20 31.41 37.57 45.32

21 32.67 38.93 46.80

22 33.92 40.29 48.27

23 35.17 41.64 49.73

24 36.42 42.98 51.18

25 37.65 44.31 52.62

26 38.89 45.64 54.05

27 40.11 46.96 55.48

28 41.34 48.28 56.89

29 42.56 49.59 58.30

30 43.77 50.89 59.70

31 44.99 52.19 61.10

32 46.19 53.49 62.49

33 47.40 54.78 63.87

34 48.60 56.06 65.25

35 49.80 57.34 66.62

36 51.00 58.62 67.99

37 52.19 59.89 69.35

38 53.38 61.16 70.71

39 54.57 62.43 72.06

40 55.76 63.69 73.41

41 56.94 64.95 74.75

42 58.12 66.21 76.09

43 59.30 67.46 77.42

44 60.48 68.71 78.75

45 61.66 69.96 80.08

46 62.83 71.20 81.40

47 64.00 72.44 82.72

48 65.17 73.68 84.03

49 66.34 74.92 85.35

50 67.51 76.15 86.66

51 68.67 77.39 87.97

52 69.83 78.62 89.27

53 70.99 79.84 90.57

54 72.15 81.07 91.88

55 73.31 82.29 93.17

56 74.47 83.52 94.47

57 75.62 84.73 95.75

58 76.78 85.95 97.03

59 77.93 87.17 98.34

60 79.08 88.38 99.62

61 80.23 89.59 100.88

62 81.38 90.80 102.15

63 82.53 92.01 103.46

64 83.68 93.22 104.72

65 84.82 94.42 105.97

66 85.97 95.63 107.26

67 87.11 96.83 108.54

68 88.25 98.03 109.79

69 89.39 99.23 111.06

70 90.53 100.42 112.31

71 91.67 101.62 113.56

72 92.81 102.82 114.84

73 93.95 104.01 116.08

74 95.08 105.20 117.35

75 96.22 106.39 118.60

76 97.35 107.58 119.85

77 98.49 108.77 121.11

78 99.62 109.96 122.36

79 100.75 111.15 123.60

80 101.88 112.33 124.84

81 103.01 113.51 126.09

82 104.14 114.70 127.33

83 105.27 115.88 128.57

84 106.40 117.06 129.80

85 107.52 118.24 131.04

86 108.65 119.41 132.28

87 109.77 120.59 133.51

88 110.90 121.77 134.74

89 112.02 122.94 135.96

90 113.15 124.12 137.19

91 114.27 125.29 138.45

92 115.39 126.46 139.66

93 116.51 127.63 140.90

94 117.63 128.80 142.12

95 118.75 129.97 143.32

96 119.87 131.14 144.55

97 120.99 132.31 145.78

98 122.11 133.47 146.99

99 123.23 134.64 148.21

100 124.34 135.81 149.48

Solved Problem
Question:
A survey on cars had conducted in 2011 and determined that 60% of car owners have only
one car, 28% have two cars, and 12% have three or more. Supposing that you have decided
to conduct your own survey and have collected the data below, determine whether your
data supports the results of the study.
Use a significance level of 0.05. Also, given that, out of 129 car owners, 73 had one car and
38 had two cars.
Solution:
Let us state the null and alternative hypotheses.
H0: The proportion of car owners with one, two or three cars is 0.60, 0.28 and 0.12
respectively.
H1: The proportion of car owners with one, two or three cars does not match the proposed
model.
A Chi-Square goodness of fit test is appropriate because we are examining the distribution
of a single categorical variable.
Let’s tabulate the given information and calculate the required values.

Observed (Oi) Expected (Ei) Oi – Ei (Oi – Ei)2 (Oi – Ei)2/Ei

One car 73 0.60 × 129 = 77.4 -4.4 19.36 0.2501

Two cars 38 0.28 × 129 = 36.1 1.9 3.61 0.1

Three or more cars 18 0.12 × 129 = 15.5 2.5 6.25 0.4032

Total 129 0.7533

Therefore, χ2 = ∑(Oi – Ei)2/Ei = 0.7533

Let’s compare it to the chi-square value for the significance level 0.05.
The degrees for freedom = 3 – 1 = 2
Using the table, the critical value for a 0.05 significance level with df = 2 is 5.99.
That means that 95 times out of 100, a survey that agrees with a sample will have a χ2 value
of 5.99 or less.
The Chi-square statistic is only 0.7533, so we will accept the null hypothesis.

Sample Questions
Part – A

1. What is the F Test?

2. What is the F Test Formula?
3. What is the Decision Criterion for a Right Tailed F Test?
4. What is the Critical Value for an F Test?
5. Why is an F Test Used in ANOVA?
6. Can the F statistic in an F Test be Negative?
7. What is the chi-square test write its formula?
8. How do you calculate chi squared?
9. What is a chi-square test used for?
10. How do you interpret a chi-square test?
11. What is a good chi-square value?
12. What are the conditions for F-test?
13. What is a major limitation of an F-test?
14. What is a good significance of F?
15. What are the 3 types of t-tests?
16. What are the importance of t-test?
17. What are the things to consider in using t- test?
18. What are some of the assumptions in ANOVA?

Unit IV - Part – B

1. Explain in detail about T-test for one sample.

2. Discuss about T-test procedure with suitable examples.

3. Explain about T-test for two independent variables with suitable examples.

4. Discuss about F-test with suitable examples.

5. Explain about ANOVA with examples.

6. Explain about two factor ANOVA with suitable examples.

7. Discuss in detail about chi-square test with examples.

8. Calculate the chi-square value for the following data.

Male Female

Full Stop 6(observed) 6 (observed)

6.24 (expected) 5.76 (expected)

Rolling 16 (observed) 15 (observed)

Stop
16.12 (expected) 14.88 (expected)

No Stop 4 (observed) 3 (observed)

3.64 (expected) 3.36 (expected)

9. Three types of fertilizers are used on three groups of plants for 5 weeks. We want
to check if there is a difference in the mean growth of each group. Using the data
given below apply a one way ANOVA test at 0.05 significant level.
 Fertilizer 1 Fertilizer 2 Fertilizer 3
6 8 13
8 12 9
4 9 11
5 11 8
3 6 7
4 8 12

9.A trial was run to check the effects of different diets. Positive numbers indicate weight
loss and negative numbers indicate weight gain. Check if there is an average difference in
the weight of people following different diets using an ANOVA Table.

Low Fat Low Calorie Low Protein Low Carbohydrate

8 2 3 2
9 4 5 2
6 3 4 -1
7 5 2 0
3 1 3 3