Chapter Two

AAU, School of Journalism & Communication: Communication Theories; April, 2024
CHAPTER TWO
THEORIES OF INTRAPERSONAL AND INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
I. Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal Communication develops as we grow through our communication with others and
from our environment. It is usually considered that there are three aspects of intrapersonal
communication, self-awareness, perception and expectation.
1. Self-awareness (Self-concept)
 Self-awareness is the part of intrapersonal communication that determines how a person
sees him or herself and how they are oriented toward others.
 It is a life skill that is practiced and then applied to overcome the day-to-day challenges of
life in a more positive and effective way.
 Self-awareness involves three factors; beliefs, values and attitudes.
 Beliefs are basic personal orientation toward what is true or false, good or bad; beliefs can
be descriptive or prescriptive.
 Values are deep-seated orientations and ideals, generally based on and consistent with
beliefs, about right and wrong ideas and actions.
 Attitudes are learned predisposition toward or against a topic, ideals that stem from and
generally are consistent with values. Attitudes often are global, typically emotional.
 Beliefs, values and attitudes all influence behavior, which can be either spoken opinion or
physical action.
 Other things that can affect self-concept are personal attributes, talents, social role, even
birth order.
2. Perception
 Perception is about creating an understanding of both oneself and one‟s world and being
aware that one‟s perceptions of the outside world are also rooted in beliefs, values and
attitudes.
 Whereas self-concept focuses internally, perception looks perception of the outside world
also is rooted in beliefs, values and attitudes.
 It is so closely intertwined with self-concept that one feeds off the other, creating a
harmonious understanding of both oneself and one‟s world.
1
3. Expectations
 Expectations are future-oriented messages dealing with long-term roles, sometimes called
„life scripts‟.
 Intrapersonal communication is used for clarifying ideas or analyzing a situation and also
reflecting on or appreciating something.
 Meanwhile, expectations are future-oriented messages dealing with long-term roles,
sometimes called life.
 These sometimes are projections of learned relationships within the family or society.
Levels of Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication may involve different levels of communication activity: Internal
discourse, solo vocal communication, and solo written communication
Internal Discourse: It involves thinking, concentration and Psychologists include both
daydreaming and nocturnal dreaming in this category. Prayer, contemplation and meditation also
are part of this category, though from a theological point of view the argument may be made.
That this is not solely internal to one in some traditions, this is similar to the concept of nafs/ego,
negotiating with the inner self. Example: Consciously appreciating the beauty of a sunset.
Solo vocal Communication: This includes speaking aloud consciously or unconsciously. This
may be done to clarify thinking, to rehearse a message intended for others, or simply to let off
steam. Example: Talking to yourself as you complain about your friend.
Solo written Communication: It deals with writing not intended for others. Example: An entry
in a diary or personal
II. Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal Communication is the process by which two or more individuals exchange
thoughts, feelings, and information. Researchers agree that Interpersonal communication is
communication that occurs between people in relationships. The success of Interpersonal
Communication depends on several variables, including the capacity for active listening,
comprehension of the viewpoints and feelings of others, and effective communication. Individual
differences like personality and communication style, cultural norms, values, and expectations
also impact Interpersonal Communication. The use of Interpersonal Communication will lead to
building strong relationships, resolving conflicts, increasing job satisfaction, improved
teamwork, Persuasion, and negotiation, managing stress, achieving personal goals, etc.
2
The Nature of Human Relationship

Human Relations refer to the ability to interact in a healthy manner with others and build strong
relationships. Human relations skills are the capacity to connect with others so that you can
constructively collaborate and achieve common goals. This includes being able to understand
and empathize with others, as well as being able to communicate effectively.
Types of Human Relationships
An interpersonal relationship refers to the association, connection, interaction and bond between
two or more people. There are many different types of relationships; for instance, family
relationships, friendships, acquaintanceships and romantic relationships.
1. Family Relationships
Our family, or relatives are people we are connected to through some form of kinship, whether it
is through blood (such as with parents, brothers and sisters), marriage (such as non-blood aunts
and uncles or step-parents) romantic relationships (such as a parent‟s girlfriend or boyfriend) or
adoption. Family includes siblings and parents who you may see every day growing up, and
other relatives such as cousins, aunts, uncles and grandparents who you may not see quote so
frequently. Families come in many different forms, for example single-parent families, step
families, etc.
Ideally, people should have strong relationships with their families, although this does not
always happen. They should feel love and closeness for their relatives, and be able to confide in
them and discuss personal things. A key role of parents and older relatives is to offer guidance,
support and, where needed, boundaries and discipline. As families are so close and spend so
much time together, arguments and disagreements can arise, but in most families, these are short-
lived and even in moments of anger or hurt, families still love and care about each other.
2. Friendships
Friends are people who we are not related to but choose to interact with. Friends are people we
trust, respect, care about and feel that we can confide in and want to spend time with. A good
friendship should be built on honesty, support and loyalty. A friendship is a reciprocal
relationship; for it to exist, both people must see each other as a friend. There are varying
degrees of friendship. You may find that you feel closer to some friends than others. This is
perfectly normal. Some friends, especially if they have only been known for a short time or are
not seen very often, may not be appropriate to confide in about personal issues or concerns. You
3
may find that you feel more comfortable and able to confide in friends whom you have known
for longer or spend more time with. Friends who are very close and know each other well are
sometimes referred to as best friends.
Some people have many friends, while others may only have one or two. There is no right or
wrong number of friends to have and everyone is different. Good friendships are mutually
respectful and supportive and share common interests and ideas. Back to the saying “A friend to
all is a friend to none.” Aristotle said it is possible to be a friend to many by simply being a good
person; however, one cannot have with many people the same relationship that is based in virtue
and character.
3. Acquaintanceships
Acquaintances are people you may encounter regularly, but who are not friends or relatives. For
example, they may be a neighbor who lives in your road that you say “hello” to if you see them
in passing, or a work colleague or someone you have seen a few times at a social event but do
not yet know well. It is important to be polite and respectful to acquaintances as having
harmonious relationships with people around you, such as work colleagues, people from college,
neighbors, etc. is an important way of avoiding stress or conflict. In some cases, relationships
that start as acquaintanceships can, over time, evolve into friendships as you get to know the
person better and see them more frequently. The level of contact with an acquaintance is
minimal. There is unlikely to be any physical contact (although in a work setting, or when being
introduced to someone, you might occasionally be required to shake hands), but the main form of
contact is likely to be smiling and saying „hello‟.
4. Romantic Relationships
A romantic relationship is one in which you feel very strongly attracted to the other person, both
to their personality and, often, also physically. A romantic relationship is that which exists
between a boyfriend and girlfriend or spouses (in a marriage) or life partners (in a civil
partnership or long-term unmarried relationship). People in a romantic relationship will see each
other very often and when apart my frequently stay in contact, for example by phone. Some
people in romantic relationships live together. A romantic relationship is the closest form of
relationship and the two people involved will often describe themselves as being attracted to
each other and/or “in love”. They feel an incredibly strong connection and bond to each other
4
that they do not feel with anyone else, even close friends, and the bond is also exclusive and
monogamous.
Successful Romantic relationships are built on love, trust, respect, support, acceptance, shared
interests and a desire for the two people involved to share their lives together. Sometimes
arguments and disagreements occur in romantic relationships. In strong relationships, these
arguments can be overcome through effective communication, understanding and compromise,
but in other cases, especially if there are frequent arguments, the two people involved my decide
to terminate the relationship. Relationships can be of varying duration.
Theories of Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Communication
Intrapersonal Communication Theories provide a deep understanding of the internal processes
influencing how we think, feel, and communicate with ourselves. It explores the dynamics of
self-talk, self-awareness, and internal reasoning, playing a crucial role in personal growth and
decision-making. Understanding these theories is a key to mastering the art of intrapersonal
communication, facilitating a deeper connection with oneself, improved mental well-being, and
more effective interactions in daily life. Again, these theories provide a deep understanding of
the internal processes influencing how we think, feel, and communicate with ourselves. These
theories range from psychological frameworks to models explaining self-perception and internal
dialogue. They are essential in exploring self-awareness, decision-making, and personal growth,
offering insights into how we process and respond to information internally.
On the other hands, interpersonal communication theory argues that strangers, upon meeting, go
through specific steps and checkpoints in order to reduce uncertainty about each other and form
an idea of whether they like or dislike each other. During communication, individuals are making
plans to accomplish their goals. Theories about Interpersonal communication have been
developed to explain how people attach meaning to events, why they act the way they do, how
they make decisions about messages, and the effect that communication has on relationships.
2.1 Symbolic Interactionism Theory
This theory, developed by George Herbert Mead and further expanded by Herbert Blumer,
focuses on the role of symbols and language in shaping social interaction and the construction of
meaning. It emphasizes that individuals interpret and assign meaning to symbols based on shared
social understandings and interactions. This theory emphasizes the role of symbols and meanings
in the construction of social reality. It suggests that individuals interpret and give meaning to
5
symbols during the process of communication and that these meanings shape their behavior and
interactions. Symbolic Interactionism views human behavior as constructed through
communication and interpretation of symbolic meanings. It describes how people use language
to construct meaning; how they create and present themselves; and how, working with others,
they use symbols to create society. The basis of this theory is that people behave based on the
meanings they attach to situations.
The foundation of this theory is meanings. Consequently, meaning is created as a result of the
interaction between people, and meaning allows people produce some of the facts forming the
sensory world. These facts are related to how people form meaning. It is symbols that
differentiate social relations of humans from the level of communication of animals. Human
beings give meaning to symbols and they express these things by means of language.
Consequently, symbols form the basis of communication.
It emphasizes the role of symbols, which can be words, gestures, objects, or behaviors, in giving
meaning to social situations and influencing human behavior. According to symbolic
interactionism theory, individuals engage in a continuous process of interpretation and
negotiation of meaning through their interactions with others. They assign meaning to symbols
and use them to communicate and make sense of the social world. Symbolic interactionism
emphasizes three core principles:
I. Meaning: It suggests that human beings act toward things based on the meanings they assign
to them. These meanings arise through social interaction and are modified through interpretation
and negotiation.
II. Language and Thought: Symbolic interactionism recognizes the central role of language in
shaping human thought and interaction. Language enables individuals to communicate and share
symbols, and it influences how they perceive and interpret the world around them.
III. Self and Society: Symbolic interactionism highlights the reciprocal relationship between the
self and society. The self, or the individual's sense of identity, is constructed and developed
through social interaction and the interpretation of symbols within a given social context. At the
same time, society is seen as a product of the collective meanings and actions of individuals.
Critiques of Symbolic Interactionism
There are certain criticisms directed towards symbolic interactionism paradigm.
6
 Symbolic interaction theory works very well for describing individual

(microanalysis) in behaviors. It is not helpful in describing the behaviors of groups or entire
family systems (macro analysis).
 Symbolic interaction does not allow for the prediction of an individual‟s behavior.
It is difficult to predict how an individual will define or perceive a symbol or behavior.
This information may be discovered by discussion with the individual.
 Symbolic interaction theory is very effective in understanding behavior of
individuals that are of the same culture of the investigator. However, there is criticism that
a symbol specific theory cannot be used cross-culturally. The meanings of symbols, behaviors, or
roles may differ between cultures.
2.2 Expectancy Violation Theory (EVT)
Expectancy Violation Theory was proposed in the 1970s by Judee Burgoon and colleagues. This
theory argues that interpretations of a message are not simply about what is said or even how it is
said. Instead, interpretation is determined by the situation, the other‟s reward value (i.e. the
positive and negative characteristics of the person), and how the message meets or violates one‟s
expectations. When what you expect to happen in an interaction does not happen, you frequently
note the occurrence and pay more attention to the event. Though violations result when someone
breaks a verbal or nonverbal rule, such as standing too close or saying inappropriate things,
violations are not necessarily negative. The violation may be perceived as positive, either
because the action was welcome or because the actor has positive reward value.
It is a theory about interpersonal communication that seeks to explain how individuals respond to
unexpected or violated expectations in social interactions. The theory highlights the role of
expectations, violation valence, and communicator reward valence in shaping interpersonal
dynamics and responses to unexpected behavior. The theory helps explain how violations can
lead to either positive or negative outcomes and how individuals adjust their communication to
restore balance and meaning in the interaction.
EVT suggests that when people engage in communication, they have certain expectations
regarding how others should behave, and when those expectations are violated, it can lead to
various cognitive and affective responses. According to EVT, individuals hold expectations
about others' behavior based on three primary factors:
7
 Context: The situational and cultural norms that shape our expectations. For example,
appropriate behavior in a classroom setting may differ from that in a casual social gathering.
 Relationship: The nature of the relationship between individuals affects their expectations.
Expectations may differ depending on whether the interaction is between friends,
acquaintances, or strangers.
 Communicator characteristics: People form expectations about others based on their
previous experiences, knowledge, and stereotypes. These expectations can be influenced by
factors such as appearance, status, and personality traits.
When someone's behavior violates these expectations, EVT suggests that individuals undergo a
two-step process of assessment and evaluation:
 Perception and Assessment: The individual perceives the behavior and evaluates it based on
their expectations. They assess whether the behavior is unexpected or deviates from the
norms they anticipated.
 Evaluation and Response: After assessing the behavior, the individual evaluates its positive
or negative implications. Positive evaluations may lead to positive emotional responses (e.g.,
happiness, excitement), while negative evaluations may result in negative emotions (e.g.,
surprise, anger, discomfort).
2.3 Interpersonal Deception Theory (IDT)
The theory was put forth by David Buller and Judee Burgoon in 1996 to explore this idea that
deception is an engaging process between receiver and deceiver. IDT assumes
that communication is not static; it is influenced by personal goals and the meaning of the
interaction as it unfolds. It explores the dynamics of deception in interpersonal interactions. It is
important to note that Interpersonal Deception Theory is just one perspective on deception in
interpersonal communication. While it provides valuable insights, individual differences and
contextual factors can also shape deceptive behaviors and their outcomes. IDT provides insights
into how individuals engage in deceptive behaviors and how these behaviors affect
communication and relationships.
IDT is a theory of deception and reaction to actual or perceived deception. It considers
cognitive resources (expectations, goals, knowledge) and behaviors (repertoire and skills) of
participants in deceptive communication which are essential to communicative context and
sender and receiver cognitions and behaviors in deceptive exchanges.
8
Interpersonal Deception Theory emphasizes that deception impacts interpersonal relationships

and communication. Deceptive acts can erode trust, increase suspicion, and create distance
between individuals. If deception is discovered, it can lead to feelings of betrayal and damage
the overall quality of the relationship.
Deception Strategies
Interpersonal Deception Theory suggests that individuals employ various strategies to deceive
others. Deceptive communication takes many forms. However, three dominate deception
strategies have been observed in interpersonal communications.
1. Falsification: Where the deceiving party (also referred to as the sender) creates a fiction (i.e.,
flat-out lies to the recipient of the communication, who is also referred to as the receiver). It
refers to providing false information in communication.
2. Concealment: In concealment the Sender omits certain material facts which results in
deceptive communication. This refers to withholding relevant information.
3. Equivocation: When employing equivocation the Sender skirts issues by, for instance, by
changing the subject or offering indirect responses. Or it indicates how the sender is being
deliberately vague, and exaggerates the subject (emphasizing or magnifying certain aspects).
Deception in Communication
Every deceptive act has, at its core, at least one of three motivations:
 To accomplish some task or attain some goal.
 The communication may be directed at maintaining or creating a relationship with the other.
 Deception is often used to save face of one or both of the parties to the communication.
Deception Cues
Interpersonal Deception Theory posits that deceptive behavior involves both verbal and
nonverbal cues. Verbal cues include speech hesitation, increased speech errors, inconsistencies in
statements, and the use of non-first-person pronouns. Nonverbal cues encompass behaviors like
avoiding eye contact, fidgeting, changes in vocal pitch, and increased body movements.
2.4 Social Penetration Theory (The Onion Model)
How do you get to know other people? You don‟t get to know someone in a day, a month, or
even a year. At the same time you are coming to know them, they are changing, adapting, and
growing and so are you. Scholars describe this progression from superficial to intimate levels of
communication in social penetration theory, which is often called the Onion Theory because the
9
model looks like an onion and involves layers that are peeled away. An important aspect of self-
disclosure is the rule of reciprocity. When you tell someone something personal, you probably
expect them to do the same. When one person reveals more than another, there can be an
imbalance in the relationship because the one who self discloses more may feel vulnerable as a
result of sharing more personal information.
Social Penetration Theory describes how self-disclosure moves relationships from superficial to
intimate. The theory, first published in the early 1970s, is often called the Onion Model because
it portrays people as having multiple layers centered on a core. At the core are a person‟s deeply
held beliefs, values, thoughts, and feelings. This core can be conceptualized as the “true” self
that is private and protected. People‟s layers have both depth and breadth, so there are different
topics that we can know about a person (breadth), as well as lots of detail about each topic
(depth). As people get to know each other, they self-disclose and “shed” layers, which moves the
relationship deeper. Relationships develop as people move from the superficial layers closer to
the core layers. The theory describes the process of relationship development as a gradual and
systematic layer-by-layer revealing of the self to others, akin to peeling an onion. It delves into
the interrelation between self-disclosure and the depth of interpersonal relationships.
Social penetration theory describes the role of disclosure in relationship development, focusing
specifically on how self-disclosure functions in developing relationships. In developing
relationships, people use self-disclosure to increase intimacy including through breadth, depth,
and the norm of reciprocity. This theory states that this process occurs primarily through self-
disclosure and closeness develops if the participants proceed in a gradual and orderly fashion
from superficial to intimate levels of exchange as a function of both immediate and forecast
outcomes. Self-disclosure is the process of revealing information about you to others that is not
readily known by them, and it plays a key role in the formation of relationships. As we get to
know someone we engage in a reciprocal process of self-disclosure.
Basic Stages in Relationship development
I. Orientation Stage: In this first stage, we engage in small talk and simple,
harmless clichés like, 'Life's like that'. This first stage follows the standards of social desirability
and norms of appropriateness.
II. Exploratory affective Stage: We now start to reveal ourselves, expressing personal attitudes
about moderate topics such as government and education. This may not be the whole truth as we
10
are not yet comfortable to lay ourselves bare. We are still feeling our way forward. This is the
stage of casual friendship, and many relationships do not go past this stage.
III. Affective Stage: Now we start to talk about private and personal matters. We may use
personal idioms. Criticism and arguments may arise. There may be intimate touching
and kissing at this stage.
IV. Stable Stage: The relationship now reaches a plateau in which some of the deepest
personal thoughts, beliefs, and values are shared and each can predict the emotional reactions of
the other person.
V. De-penetration stage (optional): When the relationship starts to break down and costs exceed
benefits, then there is a withdrawal of disclosure which leads to termination of the relationship.
2.5 Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT)
Uncertainty Reduction Theory was originated by C.R. Berger and Calabrese in 1975.
Uncertainty is unpleasant and therefore motivational; people communicate to reduce it.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory, also known as Initial Interaction Theory, can help us better
understand the communicative behaviors involved in first interactions (note this theory does not
describe relational development over time).
The theory posits that, when interacting, people need information about the other party in order
to reduce their uncertainty. Uncertainty is a sense of “not knowing” that people find to be
unpleasant and seek to reduce through interpersonal communication. The theory identifies two
types of uncertainty: cognitive and behavioral. Cognitive uncertainty pertains to the level of
uncertainty associated with our thoughts (beliefs and attitudes) of each other in the situation.
Behavioral uncertainty is related to people‟s actions and whether or not they fit our expectations
for what we consider to be “normal” or not. Behavior that is outside of acceptable norms may
increase uncertainty and reduce the chances for future interaction.
URT focuses on how human communication is used to gain knowledge and reduce uncertainty.
It explains how individuals seek information to reduce uncertainty. The theory states that we
choose to know more about others with whom we have interactions in order to reduce or resolve
the anxiety associated with the unknown. Some explorations in initial interactions and beyond:
Uncertain outcome values in predicted relationships: The more we know about others, and
become accustomed to how they communicate, the better we can predict how they will interact
with us in future contexts. Human social life has many ambiguities and thus this theory tends to
11
explain why, how and when people use communication to reduce their doubts that may arise
when talking to new individuals or groups. The uncertainty is reduced when interacting with
individuals one is likely to see again.
Strategies to reduce Uncertainty (Ways of seeking Information)
There are three uncertainty reduction strategies:
I. Passive Strategies: A person is being observed, either in situations where the other person is
likely to be self-monitoring as in a classroom, or where the other person is likely to act more
naturally as in the stands at a football game.
II. Active Strategies: We ask others about the person we're interested in or try to set up a
situation where we can observe that person (e.g., taking the same class, sitting a table away at
dinner). Or sometimes we may check their social media accounts.
III. Interactive Strategies: We communicate directly with the person. Once the situation is set
up we talk with the person. An interactive strategist would directly confront the individual and
engage in some form of dialog to reduce the uncertainties between the two.
Stages in Uncertainty Reduction
Uncertainty reduction follows a pattern of developmental stages (Entry, Personal, Exit).
A. Entry Stage: The entry stage of relational development is characterized by the use
of behavioral norms. Meaning individuals begin interactions under the guidance of implicit and
explicit rules and norms, such as pleasantly greeting someone or laughing at ones innocent jokes.
Much of the interaction in this entry phase is controlled by communication rules and norms.
During the entry stage information about another‟s sex, age, economic or social status, and other
demographic information is obtained.
B. Personal Stage: When communicators begin to share attitudes, beliefs, values, and more
personal data, the personal stage begins. During this phase, the communicators feel less
constrained by rules and norms and tend to communicate more freely with each other.
Emotional involvement tends to increase as disclosure increases
C. Exit Stage: During this phase, the communicators decide on future interaction plans. They
may discuss or negotiate ways to allow the relationship to grow and continue. That means, the
former strangers decide whether they want to continue to develop a relationship. If there is no
mutual liking, either can choose not to pursue a relationship. However, any particular
conversation may be terminated and the end of the entry phase.
12
2.6 Attraction Theory

Attraction Theory posits that three factors influence our attraction to others: their similarity to us,
their proximity, and their interpersonal attractiveness.
I. Similarity: Have you ever heard the phrase „birds of a feather flock together’? Similarity is
often an important determinant in whether or not we find someone else attractive. Research has
shown that people are more strongly attracted to others who are similar in physical appearance,
beliefs, attitudes, and who share similar co-cultural identities and backgrounds. Conversely,
differences in these categories can lead to dislike or avoidance of others.
II. Proximity: Proximity, how geographically and physically close we are to another person, also
plays a role in relationship formation. In order to form a relationship with someone, we first have
to come into contact with them. Historically, it was difficult to meet others outside of our
geographical area. However, technology has transformed how we meet and carry out
relationships since we are no longer constrained by geographic barriers. From social networking
sites to mobile apps, we now have the ability to connect with anyone, anytime, anywhere.
Generally, we are more likely to form relationships with people we actually meet face-to-face
through, for example, being in the same class or working at the same place.
III. Interpersonal Attractiveness: We communicate more with people we are attracted to.
Interpersonal attractiveness encompasses three components: physical attractiveness, social
attractiveness, and task attractiveness. Physical attractiveness is the degree to which we find
another person‟s physical features to be pleasing. Social attractiveness encompasses
characteristics such as friendliness, charisma, and warmth; whereas task attractiveness pertains to
attraction based on another‟s abilities, skills, and/or talents.
2.7 Social Information Processing Theory (SIP)
Social Information Processing Theory developed by Joseph Walther focuses on how individuals
form impressions and develops relationships through computer-mediated communication
(CMC), such as online messaging or social media platforms. The theory suggests that despite the
lack of nonverbal cues in CMC, individuals can still develop meaningful relationships by using
alternative cues and engaging in a process of information processing.
Key Principles of Social Information Processing Theory
 Cues and Information Processing: SIP Theory posits that individuals use available cues in
CMC to form impressions and make judgments about others. While nonverbal cues like
13
facial expressions and tone of voice may be limited or absent in CMC, individuals rely on
other cues, such as the content and timing of messages, linguistic style, and self-disclosure.
These cues are processed and interpreted to form impressions of others.
 Extended Time and Communication: SIP Theory recognizes that CMC provides an
extended time frame for communication compared to face-to-face interactions. Due to the
asynchronous nature of CMC, individuals have more time to consider and craft their
messages, leading to more thoughtful and strategic communication. This extended time
frame allows for deeper self-disclosure and the development of relationships over time.
 Hyper personal Communication: SIP Theory suggests that under certain conditions, CMC
can lead to hyper-personal communication, which means that relationships formed online can
be even more intimate and intense than those formed in face-to-face interactions. This is
because individuals can selectively self-present and manage their online identity,
emphasizing desirable characteristics and downplaying less favorable aspects.
 Lack of Nonverbal Cues: SIP Theory acknowledges that the absence of nonverbal cues in
CMC can lead to increased uncertainty and reliance on other cues. In the absence of visual
and auditory cues, individuals rely heavily on textual cues and the content of messages to
form impressions and make attributions about others.
 Relationship Development: SIP Theory suggests that relationships formed through CMC
progress through a similar process as face-to-face relationships. As individuals engage in
ongoing communication and gather more information, impressions become more nuanced
and relationships can deepen. Trust, intimacy, and relational satisfaction can be achieved
through continued and meaningful CMC interactions.
 Context and Media Richness: SIP Theory recognizes that the context and medium of
communication influence the information processing and relationship development. Different
CMC platforms and tools vary in terms of media richness, which refers to the capacity of a
medium to convey multiple cues and facilitate immediate feedback. For example, video
chatting may provide more cues and foster a greater sense of presence compared to text-
based messaging.
2.8 Constructivism Theory
14
Constructivism is a theoretical framework that attempts to explain why people communicate the
way they do and why some communicators are more successful than others. In the early 1980s,
Jesse Delia and colleagues, building on psychological theories of personal constructs, argued that
people‟s communicative choices are influenced by their situational schemas, or mental maps, of
how they should act in a given situation. People with highly developed or complex maps of a
situation and other people tend to have a better understanding of others‟ perspectives and goals.
Those people with complex maps are called cognitively complex.
They tend to attach more meaning to situations and others‟ actions, which enables them to be
more person centered in their communication and to develop messages that are more likely to
achieve their goals. Constructivism is a communication theory that seeks to explain individual
differences in people‟s ability to communicate skillfully in social situations. You probably don‟t
need to be convinced that some people are better at understanding, attracting, persuading,
informing, comforting, or entertaining others with whom they talk. In fact, you may be taking
communication courses so that you can become more adept at reaching these communication
goals.
The core assumption of constructivism is that persons make sense of the world through systems
of personal constructs. Constructs are the cognitive templates or stencils we fit over reality to
bring order to our perceptions. A police artist has an identification kit with which an eyewitness
can construct the face of a suspect. By systematically altering the shape of the chin, size of the
nose, distance between the eyes, line of the hair, and so forth, the witness can build a likeness of
the person in question. However, the RCQ doesn‟t bother with physical features. It centers on the
categories of personality and action that we use to define the character of another person.
The arena of politics offers a familiar example of the way we use constructs to describe another
individual. All of us have our own bipolar dimensions of judgment that we apply to politicians.
Some typical scales are liberal-conservative, steadfast-flexible, competent-inept. The politically
astute observer may draw on dozens of these interpretive orientations to describe shades of
difference. There are conservatives, and there are social conservatives. Then there are articulate
social conservatives. Some of them are belligerent, and so forth. On the other hand, those who
are politically unsophisticated may use only one value-laden construct as they watch the six
o‟clock news. They see only winners and losers.
2.9 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
15
Cognition: An opinion, knowledge or belief about the environment, about oneself, or about one's
behavior. Cognitive Dissonance: The existence of non-fitting relations among cognitions.
Leon Festinger's theory explores the inner conflict experienced when one's beliefs are
incongruent with actions or new information, leading to a motivational drive to resolve the
dissonance, often through rationalization or attitude change. Cognitive dissonance
theory postulates that an underlying psychological tension is created when an individual's
behavior is inconsistent with his or her thoughts and beliefs. This underlying tension then
motivates an individual to make an attitude change that would produce consistency between
thoughts and behaviors. Cognitive dissonance is the discomfort a person feels when their
behavior does not align with their values or beliefs. Cognitive dissonance occurs when a person‟s
behavior and beliefs do not complement each other or when they hold two contradictory beliefs.
Cognitive dissonance is not a mental health condition, and a person does not necessarily need
treatment for it. However, if a person finds that they have difficulty stopping a behavior or
thinking pattern that is causing them distress, they can seek support from a doctor or therapist.
This theory concerns the incompatibility between people‟s beliefs and actions. People deal with
dissonance by avoiding hearing contradictory news of their own, seek reassurance after tough
decisions are made, and try to change personal beliefs to match public behavior. A dissonance
reaction can be explained by self-affirmation and personal responsibility. This theory implies
that influence is an intra-personal event that occurs when there is tension between attitude and an
individual behavior.
According to this theory, a decision is made with disregard to any information opposite to one‟s
belief or behavior. The media have the challenge with this group of individuals. In this case, it
does not matter what information one conveys unless it supports their beliefs. Cognitive
dissonance theory aims to explain the relationships between the motivation, perceptions and
cognitions of an individual. It clarified the conditions that motivate individuals to change their
opinions, attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. The cognition is as any piece of knowledge that an
individual has about themself or their environment. The theory was based on the belief that
people strive toward consistency within themselves and are driven to make changes to reduce or
eliminate an inconsistency.
16
Dissonance can arise from many sources including, but not limited to, logical inconsistency,
cultural differences, contradictions between specific opinions and their related general stand, and
a disconfirmation of a past experience to a current situation.
Some examples of Cognitive dissonance include:
 Smoking: Many people smoke even though they know it is harmful to their health. The
magnitude of the dissonance will be higher in people who highly value their health.
 Eating meat: Some people who view themselves as animal lovers eat meat and may feel
discomfort when they think about where their meat comes from. Some researchers refer to
this as the meat paradox.
 Doing household chores: A male might believe in equality of the sexes but then consciously
or unconsciously expect their female partner to do most of the household labor or
childrearing.
Causes of Cognitive dissonance
Anyone can experience cognitive dissonance, and sometimes, it is unavoidable. People are not
always able to behave in a way that matches their beliefs. Some factors that can cause cognitive
dissonance include:
 Forced compliance: A person may have to do things they disagree with as part of a job, to
avoid bullying or abuse, or to follow the law.
 Decision-making: Everyone has limited choices. When a person must make a decision
among several options they do not like or agree with, or they only have one viable option,
they may experience cognitive dissonance.
 Addiction: A person might not want to engage in dissonant behavior, but addiction can make
it feel physically and mentally difficult to bring their behavior into alignment with their
values.
How to resolve cognitive dissonance
The most effective way to resolve cognitive dissonance is for a person to ensure that their actions
are consistent with their values, or vice versa. A person can achieve this by:
 Changing their actions: This involves changing behavior so it matches a person‟s beliefs.
Where a full change is not possible, a person could make compromises. For instance, a
person who cares about the environment but works for a company that pollutes might
advocate for change at work, if they cannot leave their job.
17
 Changing their thoughts: If a person often behaves in a way that contradicts their beliefs,
they may come to question how important that belief is or find that they no longer believe it.
Alternatively, they might add new beliefs that bring their actions more closely in line with
their thinking.
 Changing their perception of the action: If a person cannot or does not want to change the
behavior or beliefs that cause dissonance, they may view the behavior differently instead. For
example, a person who cannot afford to buy from sustainable brands might forgive
themselves for this and acknowledge that they are doing the best they can.
2.10. Attribution Theory
People have a strong need to understand the question “why” because it helps us to understand the
world around us. Attribution theory provides one way to understand how people answer the
question “why” and make sense of their worlds. Attribution theory seeks to help people make
sense of their world by identifying causes for the behaviors and events they experience. Causal
locus is the core of Attribution theory. The primary causes for behavior can be an internal or
external locus. An internal locus is also called dispositional because it reflects a person‟s
disposition shaping the behavior. An external locus is also called situational because it reflects
environmental factors shaping the behavior. People are all scientists who collect information
about their worlds in order to understand that world. Attributions are one form of information
people use to explain their worlds. According to attribution theory, people are motivated to make
sense of behavior and explain patterns. People develop personal explanations about others‟
motives and meaning, which, in turn, influence the person‟s actions toward others. After
observing behavior and determining whether the action was deliberate, people tend to categorize
the behavior as caused by the person (internally motivated) or caused by the situation (externally
motivated).
Attribution theory is a psychological framework that helps explain how individuals interpret and
explain the behaviors of others in interpersonal communication. It focuses on how people
attribute causes to the actions and behaviors of others, and how these attributions influence their
subsequent judgments and interactions.
18

Chapter Two

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter Two

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AAU, School of Journalism & Communication: Communication Theories; April, 2024

The Nature of Human Relationship

 Symbolic interaction theory works very well for describing individual

Interpersonal Deception Theory emphasizes that deception impacts interpersonal relationships

2.6 Attraction Theory

2.8 Constructivism Theory

You might also like