Assessing Genetic Compatibility and Yield Potential in Cross-Breeding Male

Corn Magenta F1 with Female Lagkitan Wax corn for Enhanced Hybrid Crop
Performance: A Study on Yield and Trait Expression

Eraida Mae Saure

Kimberly Angel Sonio
Keisha Gayle Ramos
Jayvie Suguitan
Jose Yuson Jr.
Nathaniel Sarino
*Arjay Rin
*Dannielyne Raciles
*Glenford Reyes
*Jake Tungpalan
*Lesli Tungpalan
*Melanie Paladan

in Partial Fulfilment
of the Requirements for BIOS 1O2-B
(Principles of Genetics)
 CHAPTER I
Introduction

Background Of the Study

The early 1900s marked the commencement of corn (Zea mays L.) breeding
for hybrid development, attributed to the work of Shull (1909), East (1908), and
others. American Indians had practiced a primitive form of breeding for thousands of
years before European colonization. Around 1850, U.S. Corn Belt dents were
developed through crosses involving germ plasm of northeastern flint and southern
dent or gourd-seed types. Open-pollinated cultivars like Reid Yellow Dent, Krug,
Learning, and Lancaster Sure Crop were developed through mass selection based
on plant, ear, and grain type.
Even today, only a small amount of germplasm from other countries is utilized
in U.S. corn breeding programs (Brown, 1975). Before the establishment of inbred
lines for hybrid seed production, various breeding techniques, such as varietal
hybridization, mass selection, and ear-to-row selection, were employed in the late
1800s and early 1900s. However, these procedures were not successful in
increasing yield, and varietal hybridization faced limited acceptance for commercial
use.
Breeding studies by Shull, East, and Jones in the early 1900s led to the
establishment of programs at U.S. agricultural experiment stations and the USDA
during 1915-1925. Private commercial corn breeding emerged in the 1930s, and by
1943, hybrid corn occupied a significant portion of the corn area in the U.S. Double-
cross hybrids were predominant until around 1960, when single crosses began to
increase and eventually became the predominant type.
Global corn breeding expanded rapidly after World War II, resulting in the
development of corn types adapted to various regions. European countries, in
particular, experienced significant expansion due to the selection of earlier maturity
and better-adapted cultivars. Corn became the most important feed crop in southern
and central Europe, ranking second to wheat globally.
Corn grain yields in the USA increased from 1.3 Mg ha-1 in 1930 to 7.5 Mg
ha-1 in 1985, primarily attributed to the adoption of hybrids, increased fertilizer use,
better weed control, higher plant densities, and improved management. Single-cross
hybrids gradually replaced double crosses around 1960, contributing to accelerated
yield gains. The text cites various experiments demonstrating the contribution of
breeding to yield increases, with total gains ranging from 0.078 to 0.110 Mg ha-1yc 1
and genetic gains from 0.033 to 0.092 Mg ha-1yc 1. Estimates suggest that genetic
improvement accounted for 56 to 89% of total gains in planned experiments, though
some bias may be present due to harvest methods. The continued improvement in
genetic potential of hybrids played a crucial role in yield increases.
Objective Of the Study
1. Examine the seed germination and early seedling vigor of the F1 Magenta and
Lagkitan Wax corn cross-bred progeny to determine the hybridization success rate.
2. Measure and compare the hybrid corn crop's overall yield potential, taking into
account factors such as ear size, kernel weight, and total grain yield, to see if cross-
breeding improves crop performance.
3. Examine the genetic stability and trait expression in the F1 generation, focusing
on key traits like disease resistance, drought tolerance, and nutritional content, to
ensure that desirable traits are inherited consistently.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The study was centered on Assessing Genetic Compatibility and Yield
Potential in Cross-Breeding Male Corn Magenta F1 with Female Lagkitan Wax corn
for Enhanced Hybrid Crop Performance under QSU Maddela condition.

Time and Place of the Study

The study was conducted at the Experimental area of the College of
Agriculture, Quirino State University, Maddela Campus during the first semester of
Academic Year 2023-2024.

Definition Of Terms
The following terms are defined operationally for purposes of this research work.
Corn husks- These are the outer covering of an ear of corn.
Corn Silk-It is the hair like styles of corn ears.
Detasseling- It is an agricultural practice involving the removal of the tassels from
corn plants. It is a common method used in commercial corn production, particularly
in hybrid corn seed production.
Ear-It refers to the corn kernel developed along a cob and form an "ear" of corn
surrounded by protective leaves called a husk.
Furrow- It is a trench created by a plow or other implements in agriculture for
planting crops within, or as a means to create irrigation pathways.
Glutinous Composite #2 or 'Lagkitan'- It is a white glutinous open-pollinated corn
variety, grown primarily for table use, native delicacies and 'kornik'. It has small to
medium to big soft kernels with excellent eating quality. It has an average marketable
ear yield of 40 tons/ha that can be harvested in 72 days.
Husk - It is the outer shell or coating of seed. It often refers to the leafy outer
covering of an ear of maize (corn) as it grows on the plant.
Inorganic Fertilizer -These are the materials derived from chemical reaction of
compounds.
Kernels - These refer to the seed of corn plant which arm edible.
Sweet waxy purple corn- It is a unique variety of corn characterized by its vibrant
purple kernels and sweet taste. Unlike traditional corn varieties, this type is rich in
anthocyanins, the pigments responsible for its distinctive purple color. The kernels
are generally small and densely packed on the cob.
Tassel - It is a male flower of a corn plant which is borne at the tip of the stem.
Variety - This pertains to the different form and agronomic characteristics of a plant.
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Corn Breeding

The history of corn (Zea mays L.) breeding in the United States is
deeply rooted in the efforts of pioneering researchers such as Shull (1909) and East
(1908), marking the formal inception of hybrid development. However, this
progressive breeding was preceded by an extensive era of rudimentary breeding
practices spanning thousands of years among the American Indian communities,
predating the arrival of European colonists in the New World. The genesis of the
U.S. Corn Belt dents can be traced back to crosses that amalgamated germ plasm
from the northeastern flint and southern dent or gourd seed varieties. These crosses
commenced around 1850 and were refined through subsequent selection processes,
ultimately giving rise to the distinctive U.S. Corn Belt dents.
Pioneering open-pollinated cultivars like Reid Yellow Dent, Krug,
Learning, and Lancaster Sure Crop emerged from a form of mass selection strategy,
meticulously focusing on plant, ear, and grain characteristics. This foundational work,
largely orchestrated by farmers and seedsmen, provided the crucial germplasm
resources, forming the bedrock from which the initial inbred parental lines were
cultivated. These inbred lines laid the groundwork for the development of the
pioneering double-cross hybrids adopted in the United States. Notably, the utilization
of germ plasm from foreign countries in American corn breeding programs has
remained relatively limited, a trend persisting even in contemporary times (Brown,
1975).

Waxy Corn Glutinous

The historical origins of waxy maize remain obscure, initially surfacing in
records of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). In 1908, Reverend J. M. W.
Farnham dispatched seeds, labeled as a distinct kind of corn, from Shanghai to the
U.S. Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction. Botanist Guy N. Collins planted
these seeds near Washington, D.C., in May 1908, documenting and publishing a
detailed description of the resulting 53 plants by December 1909.
In subsequent years, waxy maize resurfaced in Upper Burma (1915), the
Philippines (1920), and across various Asian regions according to Kuleshov's
investigations. The discovery in China raised queries about maize's existence in the
Orient before America's discovery, which De Candolle initially dismissed but
prompted a reassessment.
Debate persisted regarding the timeline of maize introduction to Asia, with
theories involving Portuguese arrivals in China in 1516. Collins hypothesized that
waxy maize might have emerged as a mutation in Upper Burma. Scholars debated
the plausibility of maize penetrating into remote regions and producing mutations
within a few centuries.
 Contrasting arguments emerged, acknowledging the common occurrence of
the waxy mutation and suggesting that maize's acceptance in Asia post-Columbian
era signified a pressing need, akin to the potato in Ireland. Chinese historical
accounts from the 16th century indicated maize's presence, possibly before 1550,
yet without concrete evidence predating 1492.
Collins highlighted the unique traits of waxy maize, enabling resistance to silk
drying during flowering despite yielding small ears. While not competitive with
improved varieties, its adaptations held economic interest, especially in arid regions,
prompting hybridization efforts.
Notably, Collins noted distinct endosperm appearances in normal and waxy
maize, suspecting a chemical composition difference. However, initial analyses
showed normal ranges of starch, oil, and protein. Despite this, the unusual starch
nature sparked interest in potential economic uses, primarily as a genetic marker in
breeding programs, potentially rescuing it from extinction in the U.S.
In 1922, Paul Weatherwax from Indiana University in Bloomington revealed
that the starch in waxy maize was a rare type known as "erythrodextrin," now
recognized as amylopectin. This distinctive starch, which stained red with iodine (in
contrast to the blue staining of normal starch), was verified by various researchers
such as Bates, French et al., and Sprague, Brimhall et al. They confirmed that the
endosperm starch of waxy maize consisted predominantly of amylopectin, a fact
previously demonstrated in rice by Parnell.
Around 1937, before World War II, G.F. Sprague and other plant breeders at
what was then Iowa State College initiated a crossbreeding program aiming to
introduce the waxy trait into a regular high-yielding hybrid maize. However, by then,
the waxy plant had lost the distinctive structural traits noted by Collins, likely due to
years of crossing with diverse genetic stocks, retaining only its unique endosperm.
Initially, waxy maize held less significance as the primary source of pure amylopectin
remained the cassava plant.
During World War II, when Japanese actions disrupted supply lines,
processors turned to waxy maize, deemed suitable for milling with existing
equipment used for ordinary maize. H.H. Schopmeyer reported an increase in waxy
maize production in Iowa for industrial purposes, from approximately 356 metric tons
in 1942 to 2540 tons in 1943. The surge in demand led to the production of around
81,650 tons of grains in 1943 to meet the specific requirements for amylopectin.
From World War II until 1971, all U.S.-grown waxy maize was cultivated under
contract for food or industrial processors, primarily concentrated in a few counties in
Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana.
However, by 1970, a devastating outbreak of Southern corn leaf blight hit the
U.S. corn belt. Simultaneously, approximately 80% of the maize cultivated in the U.S.
was vulnerable to this blight due to containing "Texas type" male-sterile cytoplasm,
allowing hybrid seed production without detasseling. Consequently, a rush ensued in
1971 to locate maize varieties with normal cytoplasm, resistant to the blight.
Consequently, some waxy maize seeds entered the market. Additionally,
backcrossing was extensively employed to transfer specific genes like wx (waxy), o2
(opaque 2), and the HTML gene for blight resistance into regular dent corn.
Observations by some farmers who fed waxy maize to their beef cattle
revealed improved animal health. Feeding trials further indicated that waxy maize led
to more efficient weight gains compared to normal dent maize. This sparked a
sudden surge in interest in waxy maize, shifting its status from a botanical curiosity
and specialty product to a subject of significant research importance.
In 2002, the United States produced an estimated 1,200,000 to 1,300,000
tons of waxy maize across about 2,000 km², accounting for only 0.5% of the total
maize production.

Glutinous White Corn

Purple corn (Zea mays L.), a member of the Poaceae family, represents a
collection of flint maize varieties, commonly known as Indian corn or calico corn,
descended from the ancestral Quechua variety "k'culli." Originating in Peru, purple
corn has achieved global distribution, notably across Asian, American, and European
markets. Its distinctive features include a concentrated purple hue found in the cob
and pericarp of the grain (Figure 1), which holds significant cultural and culinary
importance, being extensively utilized in traditional beverages and desserts (Cuevas-
Montilla et al, 2011; Monroy et al, 2016).
The utility of purple corn extends beyond culinary applications, finding
substantial use in both the food and pharmaceutical industries due to its diverse
array of bioactive compounds (Cristianini et al, 2020). Recent scientific inquiry has
honed in on purple corn varieties owing to their high content of anthocyanin pigments
primarily located in the aleurone or pericarp, known for their well-documented health-
enhancing properties. Furthermore, the natural pigment derived from purple corn
serves as a sought-after coloring agent for beverages, jellies, candies, and other
food products.
 CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Materials

To facilitate a meticulous and well-organized approach, the following materials

were used in the study: dedicated pails designed for the purpose of holding
fertilizers, a precision weighing scale essential for accurately measuring both seeds
and fertilizers. Additionally, measuring devices have been incorporated to
meticulously assess the land and maintain precise planting distances. The
integration of placards serves to systematically document and note various
experimental set-ups. To combat potential challenges, insecticide and a sprayer
have been included to address insect pests effectively. Further, meticulous data
collection is ensured through the provision of notes. Practical tools such as a rope
aid in straightening furrows, while essential items like corn seeds, inorganic
fertilizers, hoe for soil digging, shovel for tilling, and a bolo for cleaning the
experimental area have all been thoughtfully included to foster a thorough and
efficient experimental environment.

Experimental Design, Set-ups and Layout

In executing this experiment, a meticulously planned and well-structured
experimental design was employed. The layout adhered to a completely randomized
design, wherein the first and sixth rows were dedicated to the cultivation of glutinous
corn as the male counterpart, while the remaining rows (2, 3, 4, 5) featured the
planting of sweet waxy purple corn as the female. A total of six furrows were
meticulously arranged, each spaced 12 inches apart, maintaining a precise planting
distance of 20 cm. This deliberate arrangement aimed to ensure a robust and
unbiased assessment of the cross-breeding outcomes, providing a solid foundation
for analyzing the impact of the genetic interaction between the male and female corn
varieties.
Set-up description of the Experiment

Row Code Description

1 F1 Magenta Male 1 corn
2 Glutinous Female
Composite #2
3 Glutinous Female
Composite #2
4 Glutinous Female
Composite #2
5 Glutinous Female
Composite #2
6 F1 Magenta Male 2 corn
Research Locale and Sampling Procedures
The study was conducted in the controlled and monitored environment of the
QSU-Maddela College of Agriculture Experimental Area, which was chosen as the
ideal location due to its favorable soil composition, climate conditions, and dedicated
agricultural study facilities. The site provided a controlled environment for evaluating
genetic compatibility and yield potential in the cross-breeding of Male Corn Magenta
F1 with Female Lagkitan Waxy corn.
To ensure the representation of various genetic variations, sampling
procedures were meticulously established. Randomized sampling techniques were
used, with factors such as soil type and microclimates within the experimental area
taken into account. This method aimed to capture a comprehensive snapshot of the
hybrid crop's performance, taking into account a variety of genetic combinations
resulting from the cross-breeding process.

Research Instrument
A sophisticated research instrument with tools such as measuring devices,
placards for noting set-ups, and detailed recording sheets was developed. These
instruments were used in a systematic manner throughout the experiment to collect
critical data on yield metrics and trait expression.

Data Gathering Procedure

Regular observations, measurements, and thorough record-keeping were
essential components of the data collection procedure, ensuring the dependability
and accuracy of the collected data.

Management of the Corn

Seed Preparation. The seeds were purchased at a credible shoppee seller.
Land Preparation. The experimental Area was carefully selected by both The
Agriculture Specialized Teacher, Sir Dennie Ruma and The Science Specialized
Teacher, Ma’am Charmaine Abella. The field was plowed 3 times at 2 weeks interval.
It was harrowed immediately after plowing. The soil was pulverized to eliminate and
control weeds.
Seed Planting. The Male 1 and all the Female corn seeds were planted on October
17 in the afternoon. The planting distance is 20 cm. The Male 2 corn seeds were
then planted after 3 days. This is done to avoid complications in the pollination
between Male 1 and Male 2.
Planting trap crops. Lagkitan Waxy corn was used as trap crop as it involves
exposing it to pests, enabling observation of its pest resistance. This helps us
identify pests attracted to Lagkitan Waxy, and its role as a trap crop aids in
transferring traits, enhancing the Magenta F1 breeding program. This strategic
approach not only selects naturally resistant plants but also targets breeding efforts
to develop hybrids combining strengths from both Lagkitan Waxy and Magenta F1,
boosting the program's resilience and adaptability.
Application of Treatments. Application of Basal (14-14-14) and Urea (46-0-0) was
done after 20 days of planting (DAP) on November 7, and the next application was
done on November 27 with the aid of Triple 14 and Ammonium Phosphate (16-20-0).
All the fertilizers were applied with a ratio of 1:1.
Cultivation. The corn was cultivated with the aid of the hoe and bolo to allow better
aeration of plant roots. Cultivation was done as weekly as possible.
Insecticide Spraying. We sprayed the corn on November 20, 2023, immediately
after spotting pest damage, especially from Fall Armyworms. The spraying aimed to
prevent additional damage to the corn's growth and yield.
Weeding. Weeding was done to prevent the competition between the crop and
weeds for nutrients, water, and sunlight. Weeding was done as often as necessary.
Irrigation. Watering the plant was employed whenever necessary to maintain
favorable soil moisture, especially during its germination and vegetative stages.
Rainfall served as the primary irrigation source for the corn.
Detasseling. Detasseling was done a little bit late, as some of the tassels were
already fully developed and had released pollen. This should be avoided as it may
affect cross-pollination between the two male corn plants. Detasseling was
performed on December 04 in the afternoon.
 Chapter IV
Observations
In the realm of corn breeding research, a meticulous investigation has yielded
pivotal insights that shape the trajectory of advancing crop development. The
diversity in corn plant heights, particularly evident in the female corns' row, unveils
the rich genetic tapestry inherent within breeding populations. This height variability
signifies a promising avenue for selecting and refining corn varieties endowed with
distinctive growth traits tailored to specific environmental nuances.
Furthermore, the identification of leaf rust in specific corn varieties sheds light
on their vulnerability to this fungal adversary. This revelation underscores the pivotal
role of disease resistance in breeding programs, essential for cultivating resilient
corn strains capable of withstanding prevalent pathogens. The quest for enhanced
disease resistance becomes paramount, promising improved crop yields and
reduced susceptibility to diseases.
The menace of gray leaf spot, triggered by the fungal pathogen Pyricularia
grisea, poses a formidable threat as it infiltrates and kills leaf blades. The potential
progression of infections into the crown area, resulting in the demise of individual
plants, highlights the urgency in addressing moderate outbreaks to prevent clusters
of thin, off-colored turf. Understanding and managing the complexities of gray leaf
spot become imperative for sustaining overall plant health and productivity.
The emergence of twisted whorls in specific corn genotypes points to potential
genetic inclinations or environmental stressors influencing leaf development.
Tackling these abnormalities emerges as a critical task, crucial for enhancing the
holistic health and productivity of the corn plants.
Adding to the challenges, the troubling presence of fall armyworm infestation
unveils a significant hurdle in corn breeding research. The susceptibility of corn
plants to this pest emphasizes the pressing need to integrate pest-resistant traits
within breeding initiatives. This strategic approach becomes indispensable to
mitigate the detrimental effects of fall armyworms on corn yields, ensuring the
resilience of cultivated varieties.
In essence, these observations underscore the intricate and multifaceted
nature of corn breeding research. The considerations span across plant height
variation, disease resistance, leaf abnormalities, and the imperative for effective pest
management strategies. These insights propel dedicated efforts towards cultivating
robust and high-yielding corn varieties that exhibit resilience to the diverse
environmental challenges encountered in the field.
 Chapter V
Conclusion/Recommendation
The research study titled " Assessing Genetic Compatibility and Yield
Potential in Cross-Breeding Male Corn Magenta F1 with Female Lagkitan Wax corn
for Enhanced Hybrid Crop Performance: A Study on Yield and Trait Expression"
offers significant insights into the complex realm of corn breeding. It meticulously
orchestrates various management practices, from seed preparation to detasseling,
creating optimal conditions for assessing genetic compatibility and maximizing yield
potential. By strategically using Lagkitan Waxy corn as a trap crop, the study
demonstrates a clever approach to pest management. This tactic aids in identifying
pest resistance traits and transferring them to enhance the Magenta F1 breeding
program. The systematic application of fertilizers, cultivation techniques, insecticide
spraying, and weeding contributes to creating an environment conducive to crop
growth. The findings, including variations in plant height, disease resistance, leaf
irregularities, and the impact of fall armyworm infestation, shed light on the
multifaceted challenges within corn breeding research. The vulnerabilities to
diseases like leaf rust and gray leaf spot emphasize the crucial need to integrate
disease-resistant traits for improved yields and greater overall crop resilience.
Ultimately, this study's outcomes drive dedicated efforts toward cultivating robust,
high-yielding corn varieties capable of thriving in diverse environmental conditions. It
lays a strong foundation for advancing corn breeding practices, contributing
significantly to the development of resilient crops capable of tackling the complex
challenges encountered in the field. The successful application of sprays serves as
an effective solution to mitigate pest issues in corn cultivation.
 Chapter VI
Documentation/Pictures
P1-LAND PREPARATION
According to NEPAD (2017), one of the first activities that a farmer has to
undertake after site selection is to prepare the land. This is an important aspect of
farming; without adequate land preparation, the farmer can have total crop failure at
the end of the season. Land preparation is clearing and removal of bushes on the
surface of the land, this is performed differently, but the two main practices are, one
or two ploughing followed by harrowing, ridging and mulching. The size of the land,
costs and machines available dictate the methods to use for land preparation. Land
preparation typically involves ploughing, harrowing, and leveling the field to make it
suitable for crop establishment, land preparation releases nutrients to the soil,
destroying /reducing weeds and ants’ nest, it also improves the soil and plant contact
and reduces the incidence of pests and disease s infestation. Prior to planting, the
soil needs to be prepared usually by some form of land clearing. Land clearing
methods can be divided into two major categories, depending on the amount of crop
residue, clearance can be either manual (by hand) or mechanical (by machine).
P2-IMPLEMENTATION/DETASSLE
Breeding Set-up
The major focus of com breeding programs is the same as that stated by
Shull (1909), the object of the com breeder should not be to find the best pure line,
but to find and maintain the best hybrid combination." Shull's suggestion was not
immediately accepted because of the practical concerns of producing adequate
quantities of hybrid seed at an acceptable cost. These concerns were alleviated with
Jones' (1918) suggestion that single crosses be used as parents to produce double
crosses rather than inbred lines used to produce single crosses, as suggested by
Shull (1909). Pedigree selection is the most widely used breeding method to develop
inbred lines for use as parents of hybrids. The types of populations sampled,
methods of selection used, and the emphasis given to traits during selection have
changed, but the basic principles of pure-line development are used. Initially,
pedigree selection was practiced in the open-pollinated landrace cultivars that were
adapted to the areas in which the breeding programs were located. Useful inbred
lines (e.g., L317, L289, 1205, Os420, WF9, etc.) were developed from the landrace
cultivars, but it soon became obvious that repeated samplings of the same landrace
cultivars were not productive. A logical sequel was to cross pairs of elite inbred lines
that complemented one another, produce the F2 generation, and practice pedigree
selection by sampling the F2 population. F2 populations of single crosses are the
most frequently (37%) used source populations for line development (Bauman,

1981).

Jab Planting
 Maize was planted at a spacing of 18-20 cm, with a seed per hole. A planting
rope marked at 20 cm intervals was use as a guide in the planting. In developed
countries, maize is planted using mechanized planters that deliver single seeds at
equal depths and spacing resulting in homogenous plant stands and increased
yields (Pradhan et al, 2011). The development of a planter with the ability to make a
hole and release a single seed upon penetration of the soil would improve
homogeneity of the plant population, decrease intra-specific competition, and
improve yield potential (Omara et al, 2015).

Weeding
According to Karthik (2023), it is the process of removal of the weeds from the
crop fields either manually or using chemicals. It can be done by a few methods
which are mentioned as follows: (a) Manual: In this method, the weed is uprooted
from the soil by hands in the crop fields and then burnt. (b) Weedicide: These are
inorganic chemicals that are sprayed in the crop fields and kill those weed plants.
These work very specifically and thus do not harm the crops we have planted in the
field and selectively kill the weed.
 Fertilizer Application
The complete fertilizer (14-14-14) and urea fertilizer (46-0-0) were
uniformly drilled into the furrows in each treatment plot 20 days after planting. After
application, the mentioned fertilizers were covered with topsoil (Saladaga and
Banoc, 2022). Subsequently, Triple 14 and Ammonium Phosphate were applied after
20 days post-planting (DAP) respectively.

Detasseling
As the season begins, the two inbreds are typically planted alternating four
female rows and one male row. Once the plants reach a certain stage, and prior to
pollination, it’s time for detasseling. The tassels are removed both mechanically and
by hand from one of the varieties of corn plants. That way, when pollination does
occur, the detasseled plants don’t self-pollinate and are receiving only the desired
traits of the other planted variety. Just prior to harvest, the rows of corn that were not
detasseled are destroyed, so only hybrid seed is collected (Nebraska Department of
Agriculture,2019).

LITERATURE CITED
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Institute Of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 2012. Rapid Corn Syndrome

Leads to Twisted Whorls. https://cropwatch.unl.edu/rapid-corn-syndrome-
leads-twisted-whorls

Specialty Produce, 2023. Purple Waxy Corn.

https://specialtyproduce.com/produce/Purple_Waxy_Corn_22420.php#:~:text=Purple
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Wikipedia, 2014. Waxy Corn. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waxy_corn

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Omara et al, 2015. Hand planter for maize (Zea mays L.) in the developing world.
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%20Zea%20mays%20L%20in%20the%20developing%20world.pdf

Bonsu et al, 2015. Evaluation of two jab planters for planting maize in the forest
zone of Ghana.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
271743499_Evaluation_of_two_jab_planters_for_planting_maize_in_the_forest_zon
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Nebraska Department of Agriculture, 2019. Detasseling: Providing Summer Work

for Thousands of Young Nebraskans.
https://nda.nebraska.gov/promotion/feature/2019-VII-Detasseling-Article.pdf