GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA

UNIVERSITY

University School of Law & Legal Studies

Subject: Political Science- III

Research Paper

Topic:- Collective Security in the United Nations

Submitted To- Prof. Sanjukta Nath

Submitted By- Vanshika Chaudhary (03816503822)
Sadika (02116503822)
Anukriti (05216503822)
Programme- B.A.LLB (Hons.) Semester-IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our sincere gratitude and appreciation to Prof. Sanjukta Nath for her
invaluable assistance and guidance throughout the process of researching and writing our
Political Science- III research paper titled ‘Collective Security in the United Nations’. Her
profound knowledge, expertise, and unwavering support have been instrumental in shaping this
project. We are immensely grateful to ma’am for her meticulous attention to detail and her
insightful feedback that greatly enhanced the quality of our research. Her profound
understanding of Political Science combined with her ability to provide critical analysis, has
played a crucial role in refining our arguments and strengthening the overall structure of our
paper.

Furthermore, we would also like to acknowledge the stimulating environment that ma’am
created in her classroom, fostering intellectual curiosity and encouraging us to explore various
perspectives on the topic.

Lastly, we would like to express our deep appreciation to ma’am for her unwavering support
and belief in our abilities. Her mentorship has not only helped us develop our research and
writing skills but has also instilled in us a profound appreciation for the significance of Political
Science in shaping societal changes.

We are truly fortunate to have had the privilege of working under Prof. Sanjukta Nath’s
guidance, and we are indebted to her for her immeasurable contributions to this research paper.
Her dedication, expertise, and passion have made a lasting impact on our academic journey,
and for that, we are eternally grateful.

Thanking You

Vanshika Chaudhary

Sadika

Anukriti

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr.No. Title Page No.

1. Abstract of the Paper 4-5

2. Introduction 6-8

3. Historical Development of Collective Security in the UN 8-15

4. Mechanisms of the Collective Security in the UN 15-20

5. Challenges & Criticism of the Collective Security in the UN 20-22

6. Case Studies 22-27

7. Conclusion 27-28

8. References 28-31

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ABSTRACT OF THE PAPER

The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive study of the collective security
arrangement in the United Nations. It elucidates the concept of collective security in detail.
Collective security is a system in which several states cooperate collectively to avoid threats
or to respond to aggression. This is done to maintain international peace and harmony. The
principle of this concept is that an attack on one member is an attack on all the members and
hence, to prevent further aggression they respond collectively. The paper tends to explore and
understand the role of the UN in maintaining international peace and security as well as mutual
cooperation among the member states.

The paper outlines the historical development of Collective Security in international relations.
It starts with its development before the League of Nations. Thereafter, it explains how after
the World War I, the League of Nations was the first attempt at collective security but it faced
numerous challenges due to the absence of major powers like the United States. Also, it proved
to be futile as it was unable to prevent World War II. After the World War II, the United
Nations was established in 1945 with an increased emphasis on collective security. It also
provides case studies of various early interventions by the United Nations, such as in the
Korean War (1950-1953) and the Suez Canal (1956), that reflect its commitment to uphold
collective security.

The paper also delineates the various mechanisms of collective security used in the
United Nations. Firstly, it describes the role of the United Nations Security Council in
maintaining collective security in the United Nations. The Security Council is comprised of
five permanent and ten non-permanent members. The five permanent members, who have
veto power, include United States, United Kingdom, France, China and Russia. The Council
plays a central role in approving various collective security measures such as UN
Peacekeeping Operations, sanctions and military interventions.

Secondly, it provides a detailed description of Peacekeeping Operations conducted by

the United Nations peacekeepers. These peacekeepers are deployed from UN member states
and also known as Blue Helmets because of the blue helmets worn by them.
Moreover, the paper describes the legal mechanisms used for maintaining Collective
Security. It discusses the role of International Law, treaties, conventions and customary law

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in maintaining Collective Security. The International Court of Justice is the primary
judicial organ of the United Nations that adjudicates disputes among conflicting states.

The paper also delineates the challenges and criticisms of collective security in the
United Nations. These challenges include the power dynamics within the United Nations
Security Council where only the permanent members have veto power, concerns about
sovereignty and resistance offered by some states to UN interventions.

The paper also provides numerous case studies that exemplify the role played by the United
Nations in various conflicts across the globe. It provides the cases of Korean war, Gulf war
where the UN used collective security management and it tend to explore its limitations which
led to the failure of collective security arrangement used by the UN.

The paper concludes by stating that Collective Security is a fundamental principle of

the United Nations, but it faces several challenges in the contemporary world. These
challenges include power politics, sovereignty concerns, terrorism and evolving security
threats.

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I. INTRODUCTION

1. The Concept of Collective Security:-

The system of collective security, is a system used by the states to prevent wars or to stop wars.
It is a kind of security management used by the states. The general assumption of collective
security is that security of one is security of all and everyone. Defined in general terms, in an
ideal collective security system, each state ‘accepts that the security of one is the concern of
all, and agrees to join in a collective response to threats to, and breaches of, the peace.’ (Roberts
& Zaum, 2008,p.11)
An invader or an attacker against one state is considered to be an invader or an attacker against
everyone and all other states in the world. In a situation of war or where there can be breach of
peace in one state, all the states collectively team up to provide security to that state and
sometimes to fight the invader or the aggressor. Collective security is a tool of deterrence as in
this measure to promote peace, the power of all the states is collectively used to fight and rebel
against the aggressor or invader. This tool has been effectively used since 1919 to promote
peace and harmony in the international sphere.

One needs to take into account that the system of collective security is not only related to the
scope of security threats but the means that are required to be there in response to these threats
are not just confined to the use of the military. As Orakhelashvili notes, ‘the concept of
collective security is broad, and can include in itself a variety of tasks such as conflict
prevention, crisis management, peace-keeping, or peace enforcement, as required to enable the
relevant institution to deal with threats as their gravity and magnitude require’. (Orakhelashvili,
2011, p.15)

2. Overview of UN and its role in maintaining international peace and security:-

The maintenance of peace and security in the international sphere is the main goal and objective
of the United Nations. Since its very creation the UN has been aimed at preventing wars or to
ensure that the disputes and conflict gets resolved through talks and dialogues instead of a
situation of war. The purposes and principles of the UN as given under Article 1(1) and Article
2 (UN Charter 1945) clearly point out that to maintain international peace, security and
harmony is the primary function and objective of the United Nations. Over the years, the United

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Nations has helped in preventing wars and to prevent the escalation of disputes and conflicts
into wars. By its primary organ, the United Nations Security Council’s intervention, the UN
has been successful in the prevention of wars and maintenance of peace and security in the
international arena.
Furthermore, in the aspect of collective security, the United Nations Charter specifically states
and relies upon the significance of collective security for the promotion of peace and harmony
in the international arena. ‘On the one hand, evidence of a desire to create a flexible model of
collective security capable of adaptation in its application and on the other hand, we see that
the UN’s founders envisaged a discretionary, selective system that would accommodate the
interests of the major powers.’(Wilson, 2009, p.19). The chapter in the UN Charter that deals
with the concept of collective security is the Chapter VII. Chapter VII of the UN Charter is
titled as “Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, and Acts of Aggression.” This chapter
of the UN Charter comprises 13 articles i.e, Article 39-51 (UN Charter 1945) dealing with
collective security.
Article 39: Threats to the peace, breaches of the peace and acts of aggression
Article 41: Refers to enforcement actions other than collective military actions. It can
recommend sanctions against the aggressor.
Article 42: Security Council can take military action to preserve international peace and
security
Article 43: Members of Security Council are required to contribute resources, effort and forces
for raising collective security force that may have to take action
under Article 42.
Articles 44-47: Procedures for raising, maintaining and using the UN Peacekeeping Force for
collective security action.
Article 48: Action on the decision of the Security Council is to be taken by all the members or
some of them as the Security Council may determine.
Article 49: Members of the United Nations have to mutually assist in carrying out decisions by
the Security Council.
Article 50: Lays down the ways in which non-member states can adjust their policies and
actions towards the decision that may be taken up by the Security Council under Articles 41-
42.
Article 51: In case of an armed attack against a State, the UN accepts the right of the State to
individually or collectively take measures for self defense until the Security Council has taken
measures to protect international peace and security.

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The above articles of the UN Charter shows how collective security has been successfully
incorporated in the UN Charter to promote international peace and security and achieve its
primary goal by the United Nations.

II. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLLECTIVE SECURITY IN THE UN

1. Earlier Developments before the League of Nations:-

The concept of collective security was developed drastically by the League of Nations but the
concept can be traced back to earlier times as well. In 1629, the concept of collective security
was put forward by Cardinal Richelieu. In 1648, two treaties named Peace of Westphalia were
signed. This reflected the idea of collective security to some extent. In Europe, the collective
security arrangements grew during the eighteenth century’s Immanuel Kant’s Perpetual Peace
outlines the idea of peaceful community. He gave and prompted the idea of a League of Nations
to prevent wars and promote peace. He nonetheless promoted the idea of free states without
any world government. He called for an international community in a collective sense. After
the Napoleonic wars, the Concert of Europe developed in 1815. It was a consensus among all
the prominent European powers to preserve the political and territorial status quo. This
maintained the Balance of Power in Europe. It came into being with the main objective to
maintain peace and cooperation and it reflected the idea of collective security.

2. Early attempts at collective security: League of Nations:-

After World War I ended in 1918, a need for an international body to maintain peace and
security in the international sphere was there. The establishment of the League of Nations was
one of the first steps to promote peace globally. The major global powers realized the
importance of such an international body to prevent such a war on a large scale and to prevent
such havoc and destruction in the future. The Paris Peace Conference founded the League of
Nations on 10 January 1920. The eponymous Covenant of the League projected its major aims
and objectives. One such major aim was the prevention of wars through collective security and
disarmament. It relied upon the importance of negotiation and arbitration to resolve disputes
among the states.
The collective security arrangement was outlined in Articles 10-17 (Covenant of League 1919)
of the Covenant of the League of Nations. Article 10 states that the members of the League

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undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and
existing political independence of all members. In case of any such aggression or in case of
any threat or danger of such aggression the Council shall advise upon the means by which this
obligation shall be fulfilled. Article 16 (Covenant of League 1919) calls for both military and
economic sanctions to promote collective security.
The League was successful in promoting international peace and security in its early years,
however, it was backed by certain weaknesses. Let’s first delve into the successes of the League
and then its failures and weaknesses. One such example is the Aaland Islands dispute in 1920
where it was a disputed area between Finland and Sweden. After despatching a commission of
enquiry, the Council decided that the Islands rightfully belonged to Finland subject to certain
guarantees for the Swedish inhabitants.(Brown, 1921). That is how League through dialogues
promoted peace and resolved disputes. Another instance is of Greek- Bulgarian territorial
dispute where after a ceasefire was concluded, commission of enquiry was established which
further led to suggestions and fixation of the situation. Viscount Cecil, a key player in the
League, believed that Britain and France were both prepared to use force if the call to end
hostilities was not met with, 10 underlining the importance of the attitudes of the major powers
to the successful resolution of conflict. (Cecil, 1941). There is one more case where the League
secured peace and prevented wars. After the assassination of an Italian in the Conference of
Ambassadors on Greek soil, Corfu was annexed by Italy. Greece called for help from the
Council. Both sides after talks accepted the decision and Italy evacuated Corfu. The League’s
attitude towards Italy’s actions generally was central to its compliance.(Scott,1973)
These are some of the cases and instances where League saw attack on one nation as attack on
all and intervened through peaceful ways to prevent wars and resolve disputes. Now, let’s
understand the weaknesses of the League of Nations. There were both legal defects and
political problems hampering the working of the League. The legal or structural defects
stemmed from the poor drafting of the Covenant of the League of Nations. The Assembly of
the League and the Council of League was given no separate distinction. Articles 3 & 4
(Covenant of League, 1919) show how both the bodies were given identical powers. According
to Article 5, there should be a unanimous decision. This marked a political hindrance on the
part of the League to act and function effectively as any one state may block the action of the
other members. Ironically, as a consequence of Persia’s negative vote this provision prevented
the adoption of a Canadian sponsored resolution by the Assembly as early as 1923 which
purported to leave it to each state individually to decide upon what measures it should take to
comply with Article 10’s obligation in any given case.(Wilson, 2009). Furthermore, Article 12

9
of the Covenant merely obliges the members to submit their disputes to the League for
arbitration and to refrain from wars until 3 months had passed from a report being made or
award given. Another weakness was no US involvement in the League even though President
Wilson was involved in its creation. US being a strong emerging power would have been
helpful and significant for the efficiency of the League but, it was deprived of US involvement.
Apart from these legal or structural drawbacks, League’s failure is also marked by political
defects. To make the League successful one major requirement was the political will, which
however started declining in the 1930s. Japan and Germany withdrew from the League in 1933,
followed by Italy in 1937. Only France and Britain were left by 1939. This started with Japan’s
invasion of China in 1931. When China called for the League’s help, it did nothing more than
calling for Japan’s withdrawal and recommended negotiations. ‘Japan had committed blatant
aggression and she had got away with it.’ (Scott,1973, p.241) France and Britain, the two major
League powers, were anxious not to upset Mussolini, seeing him as a potential ally against
Hitler in the event of any subsequent war with Germany. (Scott,1973,p.320). However, under
Article 16 of the Covenant, certain sanctions were applied on Italy but were dropped as soon
as Ethiopia's defeat became final. This showed a case of giving away its collective security
ideals and promotion of its self-interest by the League. By the time World War Two broke out
most members of the League had declared themselves no longer obliged to join in any sanctions
or action against aggression should they not want to. (Walters,1952). All these instances
marked how the authoritarian regimes and the desire for expansion of power and self- interest
led to the decline for collective security ethics and principles of the League of Nations.

3. Establishment of the UN and its foundational principles:-

The United Nations creation is marked by many events. After the Second World War, the world
faced destruction and havoc on a large scale. It was realized by the prominent global leaders
that the nations and the world cannot afford more wars. It is necessary to have an organization
to prevent wars and promote peace. After the failure of the League of Nations, the countries
again became totalitarian and wars became prominent, thereby ultimately leading to World
War II. Nations realized that now the League could not be recreated but another international
organization’s need was emphasized. The US President Roosevelt was in the favor of a
‘peacekeeping agency’.
On 12 June 1941 the Inter- Allied Declaration took place, where the leaders upheld a promise
“to work together, with other free people, both in war and in peace.” Thereafter, one of the very

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famous Atlantic Charter was jointly signed by the UK President Churchill and US President
Roosevelt on 14 August 1941. The point 8 of the Charter was that all nations must come to
abandon the use of force. This charter marked the beginning of the UN. On 1 January 1942,
the “Declaration by UN” was signed by the 26 allied nations in Washington DC. This was the
first time the word UN was used officially.
The very first serious discussions regarding the formation of the UN took place in Moscow.
The Moscow Declaration which was signed by the USSR, UK, US and China on 30 October
1943 envisioned “a general international organization based on the principle of sovereign
equality of all peace loving states, for the maintenance of international peace and security.”
After this major step, the Tehran Declaration, which marked a plan for an international
organization for peacekeeping, was signed on 1 December 1943.
The Dumbarton Oaks Conference was held from 21 September 1944 to 7 October 1944. The
discussions first took place between the US, UK and USSR, followed by separate discussions
between the former two states and China for political reasons. (Ostwrower,1998, p.19). The
aim was to reach agreement between the major allied powers upon a set of proposals for a new
collective security organization, which could then be put to an international conference of
states, charged with drawing up the proposed organization’s Charter. (Hilderbrand,1990).
Thereafter, the Yalta Conference took place on 11 February 1945 where US President
Roosevelt, UK President Churchill and USSR President Stalin declared a resolve to establish
“a general international organization to maintain peace and security.”
The final largest conference was held from 25 April 1945 to 26 June 1945 in San Francisco by
280 delegates from 50 invitee nations. In this, the Dumbarton Oaks proposals were reviewed
with some changes made and finally, the conference ended with the signing of Charter on 26
June 1945. The final ratification of the charter by 5 permanent members of the UNSC &
majority of signatories took place on 24 October 1945 and the Charter came into force on 10
January 1946.
This is how the United Nations was established after a long process of discussions and
declarations by the world dignitaries and leaders. The foundation principles of the UN are given
and prescribed in its Charter. Article 2 of the UN Charter lays down a series of principles that
are required to be followed by the UN whenever any decision is made.
The 1st principle of the UN is that it is based on the sovereign equality of all members of the
UN. This is the core principle of the UN. This is probably best understood in legal terms as
indicating a guarantee of equality of legal rights of states, as opposed to genuine equality within

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the most important decision-making processes which take place within the UN system, in the
Security Council. (Goodrich,1949, p.100)
Article 2(4) (UN Charter 1945) states that members shall refrain from the threat or use of force
against territorial integrity or political independence of any other state. Although debates rage
to this day on the extent of Article 2 (4)’s prohibition and that of the exceptions to it which
exist, the underlying objective of the provision is clear: the centralisation of the power to utilize
military force in the hands of the Security Council.
Furthermore, the next principle is that all the members of the UN shall fulfill their charter
obligations in good faith. The fourth principle is that the members are required to settle their
disputes by peaceful means and without endangering international peace and security.
Article 2(7) of the Charter prohibits the UN from intervening ‘in matters essentially within the
domestic jurisdiction of any state’, it is expressly stated that this ‘shall not prejudice the
application of enforcement measures under Chapter VII’, in effect providing that if the Security
Council chooses to adopt such measures under Chapter VII the domestic jurisdiction limitation
is no longer applicable. As it has over time broadened its approach to the question of what
constitutes threats to the peace under Article 39– the determination of the existence of such
threats being a necessary trigger for the possibility of enforcement action – the domestic
jurisdiction limitation contained in Article 2(7) has appeared to decline in terms of significance.
(Wilson,2009). This is another crucial principle of the UN charter that other states shall not
interfere in domestic matters of the other state. In any event, as White notes, the Council has
developed its own interpretation of what is covered by the domestic jurisdiction
limitation.(White,1997).
These above are the core foundational principles of the United Nations which further helped in
the peacekeeping measures and collective security is the essence of these principles.

4. Case Studies of early UN interventions and Peacekeeping missions:-

The United Nations has always been enthusiastic in promoting peace and security through
interventions through various measures. The UN has intervened since its creation to resolve
disputes between the nations. The official peacekeeping missions though began late but the UN
has case studies of its intervention even before official use of the term peacekeeping missions.
Chapters 6 and 7 of the UN Charter deal with peacekeeping. Article 37 of the Chapter 6 states
that if any matter is not resolved between the countries they have to refer the same to the United
Nations Security Council (UNSC). The Security Council enjoys a broad general power under

12
Article 34 (UN Charter 1945) to investigate any dispute that might give rise to international
friction in order to determine whether it is likely to endanger international peace and security,
and under Article 36 is empowered to make recommendations for the settlement of disputes.
This underlines the central role of the Council, which is able to involve itself in any situation
in order to promote its peaceful resolution.
Let’s first delve into an instance of the early UN intervention to resolve the dispute.

a. Free Territory of Trieste:-

This was one of the first cases where the UN intervened and peacefully resolved disputes
through resolutions and diplomatic measures. Trieste was an area earlier occupied by Italy and
during World War II occupied by the German troops. After the Second World War, it was
occupied by the Yugoslav troops. In 1945, the New Zealand troops came to the area and forced
the surrender of the Yugoslav troops. This led to the ongoing dispute between Yugoslav and
New Zealand troops. This is when the United Nations intervened to prevent the escalation of
dispute to war. The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) approved Resolution 16 under
Article 24 of the UN Charter which led to the establishment of a free state of Trieste and its
surrounding region in January 1947. A permanent statute that codified the provisions for the
state was recognised under the international law and an international governor was appointed
upon the approval of the Quadripartite Powers (UK, US, France, and the Soviet Union). A
peace treaty between the UN and Italy was ratified on 15 September 1947 thereby leading to
the creation of the Free Territory of Trieste.
The peacekeeping missions of the United Nations began in 1948. Now, let’s take a look into
some case studies of UN Peacekeeping missions.

b. Arab- Israeli War:-

The Arab- Israeli War of 1948 is one of the first peacekeeping efforts of the UN. The area of
conflict was Palestine. In 1947, Britain requested to have a special session of the United
Nations General Assembly (UNGA) for conflict arrangement in Palestine. In May 1947, the
United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) was established with the aim to
provide alternatives to the future of Palestine. Britain did not cooperate with the Committee
and the Higher Arab Committee also boycotted the commission. However, Jewish cooperated
with the findings and investigation of the commission. Nevertheless, based on the

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recommendations of the UNSCOP, the UN adopted the Resolution 181 (29 November 1947)
which led to the partition of Palestine, giving 55% of the land to the Jews and 40% to the Arabs.
However, this led to a civil war within the area due to unfulfilled demands of the Arabs. The
UN was highly criticized for this situation of civil war. To resolve this dispute, the UNGA
created the post of the UN Mediator with the adoption of Resolution 186 on 14 May 1948. The
post of Mediator was unanimously assigned to Count Folke Bernadotte. Besides Bernadotte’s
accomplishments during World War II and his dedication to philanthropic activities, the fact
that he headed the post of Chairman of the Swedish Red Cross probably contributed to his
designation as UN Mediator since one of the responsibilities of the Mediator specified by the
resolution was to involve other international organizations to cooperate with the UN in solving
the Palestinian issue. The UNSC through its Resolution 50 called for a ceasefire in the area.
These are some ways through which the UN intervened in the dispute of Palestine and led its
peacekeeping mission.

c. United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC):-

UNTAC was established in February 1992 under UNSC Resolution 745 in agreement with the
State of Cambodia , the de facto government of the country at that time, to implement the Paris
Peace Accords of October 1991 which led to the end of Cambodian- Vietnamese War. UNTAC
was the first time when the UN directly controlled the administrative functions of a nation, a
different path from earlier supervisory methods. The foreign affairs, national defense, finance,
public security and information was controlled. The UNTAC successfully conducted free and
fair elections in 1993 and led to creation of a new Constitution. Finally, a new civil government
was formed and peace was restored in the nation. Law and order was restored in the state of
Cambodia and human rights were protected. This is a significant case where the UN
peacekeeping efforts helped in restoring peace in a country.

d. United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan (UNMOT):-

UNMOT was a peacekeeping mission of the UN appointed by the UNSC in December 1994 in
Tajikistan to monitor and supervise the peace agreements during and after the end of Tajikistan
Civil War which was between the ruling government and United Tajik Opposition. Firstly, it
was deployed in a ceasefire situation during 1994 after the direct appeal of Uzbekistan

14
President Islam Karimov to the UN. Initially deployed for only six months the UNMOT was
extended several times till May 2000 to observe the progress of peace.

e. United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central

African Republic (MINUSCA):-

To protect the Central African Republic Civilians, MINUSCA was established on April 10,
2014 under Chapter VII of the UN Charter. The Seleka, a Muslim group committed human
rights violations against their predominantly Christian country. In response to this, Anti Balaka,
a Christian community was formed. This conflict led to the overall decline in life expectancy
and increase in mortality rates of the country, eventually leading to migration of people from
the Central African Republic to neighboring nations like Chad and Democratic Republic of
Congo. The UN deployed a transition team to set up MINUSCA and prepare for a seamless
transition of authority from MISCA to MINUSCA. The major aims of this peacekeeping
mission is to support the transition process, promotion and protection of human rights,
disarmament, demobilization, disintegration, repatriation, etc. As of 2021, MINUSCA has
more than 15,000 police personnels and troops deployed on the ground. Recently, on 15 May
2023, Humphrey Nyone was appointed force commander of MINUSCA.
The above are some of the case studies of how the UN Peacekeeping efforts and measures have
resolved disputes, monitored and supervised countries to ensure peace, law and order and
harmony in those countries. This is how the UN intervenes still to the present day to prevent
escalation of disputes into wars and promotion of peace and security in the international sphere.
Till date, the UN Peacekeepers have been a part of 72 missions, many of which continue till
present day and for its remarkable work the peacekeeping force collectively received the Nobel
Peace Prize in 1988.

III. MECHANISMS OF COLLECTIVE SECURITY IN THE UNITED NATIONS

One of the most important goals of the United Nations is “to maintain international peace and
security, and to that end: take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of
threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of peace.”
(Joshi, 2019). Thus, the United Nations Charter envisions universal collective security.
“The universal system of collective security, established by the UN Charter, is a unique
development after World War II. The collective security system establishes normative, political

15
and military prerequisites for the UN to be able to prevent threats, acts of aggression and other
acts of breach of peace. The collective security system within the UN became particularly
evident after the Cold War, when instead of ideological confrontation, cooperation between
states began to develop on issues of collective security on a global scale.” (UNRCCA, 2020)

1. The Role of the Security Council in Collective Security:-

Its main function is the maintenance of international peace and security. Article 23 (UN
Charter, 1945) of the Chapter V of the United Nations Charter lays down the foundation of the
Security Council by elucidating the membership, composition and functions of the Security
Council.
Chapter VII of the UN Charter deals with the action of the United Nations with respect to
Threats to Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression. (UN Charter, 1945) It also
specifies the main responsibility of the United Nations which is the maintenance of
international peace and security.
The United Nations Security Council fulfils various roles in advancing collective security
objectives which can be enumerated as follows:
a. Conflict Prevention and Resolution

One of the principal functions of the UN Security Council is to prevent international conflicts
and to resolve the existing conflicts. The UNSC employs various methods to resolve these
conflicts such as diplomatic efforts and techniques of peaceful settlement of disputes including
mediation, negotiations between conflicting parties etc.
b. Peacekeeping Operations

The United Nations Security Council also establishes UN Peacekeeping Operations in conflict-
ridden areas. The UN Peacekeeping Forces help in monitoring ceasefires and assist in
implementation of peace agreements in such conflict-ridden areas. Although, all members of
the United Nations share the cost of peacekeeping operations but the permanent members of
the United Nations Security Council pay a larger share of the costs incurred as they have a
special responsibility of maintaining international peace and security. (Ghosh, 2023)
c. Imposition of Sanctions

In situation where the peaceful means of settlement are inadequate for maintaining
international peace and security, the UN Security Council imposes economic sanctions on the

16
states. These economic sanctions include trade restrictions and embargoes for human rights
violations and non-compliance with International Law. Economic Sanctions have been
enforced on Iraq, Libya and North Korea as these countries violated international law, which
threatened the peace and security of UN member states.
d. Authorisation of Military Force

In situation where the peaceful means of settlement are inadequate for maintaining
international peace and security, the UN Security Council may also use military force. But this
use of military force has to be authorised under Chapter VII of the UN Charter (UN Charter,
1945) which empower member states to take collective action, including military intervention.
For instance, military intervention was authorised by the UN Security Council in the Gulf War
(1990-1991).

2. Peacekeeping Operations and their Effectiveness:-

The term ‘peacekeeping’ is not explicitly defined in the UN Charter and it is difficult to define
it due to the broad and inclusive nature of the Peacekeeping Operations. “Dag Hammarskjöld,
the second Secretary-General of the United Nations referred to it as belonging to “Chapter Six
and a Half” of the Charter, placing it between traditional methods of resolving disputes
peacefully, such as negotiation and mediation under Chapter VI, and more forceful action as
authorized under Chapter VII.” (Ghosh, 2023)
Peacekeeping Operations are a function of the United Nations’s Department of Peace
Operations (DPO). These Operations help in establishing peace in war-torn countries. They
have a twin objective of preventing conflict as well as establishing peace.
United Nations Peacekeeping Forces (UNPK) comprise of UN Peacekeepers who may be
military personnel, police personnel or even citizens. UN Peacekeepers are also known as Blue
Berets or Blue Helmets because of their blue-coloured helmets.
The first UN Peacekeeping mission was established in 1948 when UN Military Observers were
deployed in the Middle East to supervise the Armistice Agreement between Israel and the Arab
countries. There have been 63 UN Peacekeeping Operations around the globe till date. Out of
these 63 Peacekeeping Operations, 15 Operations are currently going on under the guidance of
the Department of Peacekeeping Operations.

i. Effectiveness of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations

17
 a. Transformative Impact of UN Peacekeeping Operations

UN Peacekeeping Operations received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988. The Nobel Committee
awarded the prize because the United Nations peacekeeping forces had contributed to
reducing tensions where an armistice had been negotiated but a peace treaty was yet to be
established, under extremely difficult conditions. (United Nations Peacekeeping Forces, UN
Website 1988 )
UN Peacekeeping Operations were successful in El Salvador and Mozambique by achieving
self-sustaining peace in these areas. UN Peacekeeping Operations were also successfully
conducted in Sierra Leone, East Timor and Liberia by reducing civilian casualties, shortening
the conflict and making peace agreements more effective.
Some of UN Peacekeeping’s successful operations so far include Namibia (1989-1990),
Cambodia (1992-1993), Mozambique (1992-1994), El Salvador (1991-1995), Guatemala
(1997-1997), Eastern Slavonia/Croatia (1996-1998), Timor Leste (1999-2002), Sierra Leone
(1999-2005), Burundi (2004-2006), Timor Leste (2006-2012), Côte d’Ivoire (2004-2017),
and Liberia (2003-2018) (News, Does UN Peacekeeping work? Here’s what the data says,
2022)

b. Criticism of UN Peacekeeping Operations

UN Peacekeeping Operation were unsuccessful in Somalia where peacekeepers were

dispatched without either a ceasefire or the consent of warring parties. (Ghosh, 2023)
Similarly, UN Peacekeeping forces were unable to prevent the Genocide in Rwanda in 1994
and the massacre of Srebrenica in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1995.
UN Peacekeeping Operations have also been criticised due to the enormous expenditure
incurred on peacekeeping activities. There is a mounting expenditure with additional costs
incurred on new and expanded missions. (Ghosh, 2023)
UN Peacekeepers have been accused of offences such as rape, sexual assault, paedophilia and
human trafficking. These offences have been continuously rising as UN Peacekeepers are
“immune from prosecution by the host state for any alleged crimes committed while on
mission. This was considered necessary to stop others sabotaging their efforts to assist in post-
conflict environments. Instead, they are be held accountable by their own government or
judicial system.” (Essa, 2017) However, some peacekeepers abuse this privileged position by
sexually abusing women and children in conflict-ridden areas.

18
 In 2014, allegations came to light that international troops serving as UN peacekeepers in the
Central African Republic (CAR) had sexually abused a number of young children in exchange
for food or money. (Africa Renewal News, Fresh allegations of sexual abuse made against
UN peacekeepers in Central African Republic) In August 2018, the United Nations recorded
more than 1700 allegations of sexual abuse and exploitation in the last 15 years, but only 53
United Nations peacekeepers have been sent to jail for sexual offences. (Child Rights
International Network (CRIN)

3. Legal Mechanisms and International Law Enforcement:-

a. Foundations of Legal Mechanisms in the United Nations

The UN Charter is the principal legal document of the United Nations that laid down the
foundational principles about the structure, composition and functioning of the United
Nations. Article 1 of the UN Charter lays down the purposes of the United Nations.
It states that the purposes of the United Nations are (UN Charter, 1945):
1. To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective
measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression
of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful
means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law,
adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a
breach of the peace;
2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal
rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to
strengthen universal peace;
3. To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic,
social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect
for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race,
sex, language, or religion; and
4. To be a centre for harmonising the actions of nations in the attainment of these common
ends.

All these purposes of the United Nations coincide with the basic tenets of Collective
Security as the United Nations seeks to maintain international peace and security, develop

19
 friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation in solving international
problems and be a centre for harmonising the actions of the member states of the UN.

b. International Law Enforcement

Within the United Nations, the joint actions of states to maintain universal peace and security
are based on the functions and authorities of the main UN bodies and on respective
commitments of UN member states. The United Nations adopts new international legal norms,
structures and processes for international cooperation and provides a platform for diplomatic
contacts, international discussions, meetings and conferences. (UNRCCA, 2020)
The enforcement of International Law within the United Nations involves the compliance of
the member states with international law and UN resolutions to maintain peace and security.
This enforcement involves numerous mechanisms aimed at addressing violations of
international law and resolving conflicts peacefully. The mechanism used to address violations
of international law are diplomatic measures,1 economic sanctions, UN Peacekeeping
Operations and authorisation of the use of force.

IV. CHALLENGES AND CRITICISMS OF COLLECTIVE SECURITY IN THE

UNITED NATIONS

The Collective Security system of the United Nations has faced numerous challenges arising
out of the power dynamics within the UN Security Council, sovereignty concerns and
resistance to intervention by member states. Critics have argued that these challenges are
detrimental to the effective functioning of the Collective Security system within the United
Nations.

1. Power Dynamics within the Security Council:-

Article 23 of Chapter V of the UN Charter states the membership of the UN Security Council.
(UN Charter, 1945) It states that the Security Council shall consist of fifteen members United
Nations. (Ghosh, 2023) Out of these fifteen members, five members are Permanent Members
of the UNSC. These five permanent members are also known as P-5 and include the United

1
Diplomatic measures include negotiation and mediation, which are aimed at resolving conflicts between states
peacefully.

20
States of America, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Republic of
China, France and Russia. The ten non-permanent members are elected by the UN General
Assembly on a two-year term.
Only the five permanent members possess the veto power. This means that “decision on
substantive matters require nine votes, including the concurring votes of all five permanent
members. This is the rule of great power unanimity, often referred to as the “veto” power”.
(Ghosh, 2023) It also reflects the unequal structure and imbalanced nature of power distribution
within the Security Council. It does not allow the ten non-permanent members of the Security
Council to take independent decisions on substantive matters.
Moreover, there are also internal disagreements between the permanent members of the
Security Council. These differences primarily arise from ideological differences and variance
in the foreign policy adopted by these permanent member states. These differences hinder
cooperation among members of the Security Council and prevents them from arriving at a
mutually acceptable decision on pressing issues, regarding maintenance of international peace
and security as well as violation of international law and human rights.
“Although the United States is the lead player in shaping the Security Council’s agenda, it does
not always enjoy the support of Britain and France. There have been tensions among the P-3,
especially between the US and France over the current crises in Mali, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo (DRC), and Syria. France has been in favour of more interventionist responses in
all three cases, while US has been extremely reluctant about taking robust action given its
difficult experiences in Iraq between 2003 and 2011.” (Paterson & Virk, 2013)
This imbalance of power in the Security Council is detrimental to Collective Security as it pits
one state against the other in issues of global importance. Internal conflicts between the
permanent members of the UN Security Council hinders collection action by UN members
states on global issue. For instance, the Security Council was unable to stop the “genocide in
Rwanda in 1994, in which 800,000 people were killed. The Security Council was also unable
to end the “ethnic cleansing” of about 200,000 people and crimes against humanity in the
Balkans between 1991 and 1995”. (Paterson & Virk, 2013)

2. Sovereignty Concerns and State Resistance to Intervention:-

French philosopher Jean Bodin, in his work The Republic, has defined sovereignty as “the
supreme power over citizens and subjects unrestrained by laws.” (Myneni, Political Science,
2022) Sovereignty concerns means the apprehensions of states regarding the perceived

21
infringements upon their sovereign authority or independence, particularly in the context of
external intervention or interference by other states or international organisations like the
United Nations.
Challenges to the sovereignty of a state include military intervention by UN Peacekeeping
Forces or other states, economic sanctions imposed by the United Nations and diplomatic
pressure asserted on the state. States resist military interventions by UN Peacekeeping Forces
or other states as these are violations of a state’s sovereignty, territorial integrity and political
autonomy. Economic sanctions imposed by the United Nations also cripple the economy of a
nation, thereby hindering its ability to conduct trade and its ability to make independent
decisions.
Thus, all these restriction on the sovereignty of a state primarily emerge out of the UN
Collective Security system that a state is part of and affect the ability of a state to take
independent decision. Therefore, collective security of the United Nations must be balanced
with sovereignty considerations of the state to enable a state to effectively govern and exercise
power over its citizens.

V. CASE STUDIES

1. Examples of Collective Security Initiatives:-

a. Korean war:-

The first test of collective security operations of United Nations peace keeping operations was
the Korean War. The Korean war was fought between North Korea and South Korea from 1950
to 1953 when North Korea invaded South Korea. This was an off shoot of the Cold War conflict
between the United Nations and the defunct Soviet Union. When World War II ended in 1945,
Korea which was a Japanese Colony for 35 Years was temporarily divided by United States
and the Soviet Union. Their agreement to divided and rule Korea in order to case the surrender
of Japanese Troops has kept that country divided till today. After achieving their desired
objective, negotiations were made to reunite the country. But when all negotiations became
futile, the United States in the year 1947, invited United Nations General assembly to solve the
issue. This was the genesis of the United Nations intervention in Korea. But unfortunately, the
two attempts by United Nations General Assembly to reunite the Country in the Year 1947 and
1948 failed. The problem enhanced when the Communist troops from North Korea invaded the

22
South Republic of Korea which was recognized by United States. At instance Of United States,
the Security Council kept a meet and with the gap created by the Soviet Boycott adopted three
resolutions:
i.) To declare the armed attack by North Korea a breach of peace and call for cessation of
hostilities and the withdrawal of North Korean Forces.
ii.) To recommend that the member states assist the Republic of Korea in repelling the attack
and in restoring international peace and security in the area.
iii.) To authorize a unified command using the United Nation’s flag.
Though the United Nations was the commander of the combined resolutions, some of the
resolutions were preceded by unilateral actions by the United Nations. For instance, before the
last resolution was even adopted, President Truman has already ordered the United Nations
forces to give support (Air and Sea) to South Korea. About 90 percent of the forces that were
involved in repelling the invasion came from United States under the banner of United Nations.
Thus it was far from the model of an ideal collective security model of United Nations. The
United Nations aided in repelling the North Korean forces by providing only the International
legitimacy to United States actions. United States actions could be carried out with or without
United Nations’s Support. The Security Council was not able to apply collective security
measures or techniques appropriately. It never utilized the stronger measures of Articles 40 and
42. (UN Charter 1945). Its actions were also deadlocked when the Soviet Representative
returned. Then the General assembly acted through its Uniting for peace resolution which
sought to obtain a cease fire situation. This was apparently the first Use of the Uniting for
peace plan and the experience showed that it would probably the last also. Some members of
the UN failed to contribute armed contingents, that was earlier agreed for its execution. The
uniting for peace plan was invoked four times without any effect. These difficulties signalled
a retreat from commitment of collective Security. Thus the hopes that United Nations would
serve as an effective collective security mechanism dimmed.
Finally, the Korean Conflict ended in a stalemate. However, the invasion was repulsed. But if
the United Nations was effective as a Collection Security Organization, North Korea would
not have ever dared to invade and challenge the Status Quo.
Thus, The United Nations, failed to provide the deterrence that was expected from a collective
security organization.

23
b. The Gulf War:-

The Second test of collective security operations of United Nations peace keeping operations
was the Gulf War. The Gulf War was somewhat similar to the Korean War. The Gulf War was
fought between Iraq and Kuwait in 1991. Saddam Hussein’s Iraq invaded the Small oil rich
state of Kuwait on 2nd August, 1990 with the intention of making it a 29th province. Saddam
justified his actions on the grounds that Kuwait was port of Iraq during the Ottoman Empire,
between 1307 and 1885. Saudi Arabia tried to resolve & mediate between Iraq and Kuwait in
this conflict. But it was not successful. Following this, Iraq invaded Kuwait. Iraq’s action was
condemned by world powers. United States ordered immediate economic sanctions on Iraq.
The defunct Soviet Union, which was in the twilight of its United Nations Security Council,
poked by the United States, condemned the invasion and demanded Iraq to withdraw
immediately. The United Nations and the defunct Soviet Union Joined to back the Security
Council Resolution. United States also decided to send troops to support Saudi Arabia. It went
on Turkey to close Iraqi oil pipeline. It also led to the European Union’s (EU) announcement
of sanctions against Iraq on August 4, 1990. Despite all these, Iraq remained adamant. It
refused to withdraw from Kuwait. It officially annexed Kuwait on August 8, 1990 and also
renamed it and fixed the value of its currency at parity with Iraq’s currency. This led the United
Nations Security Council to pass resolution in which ordered comprehensive economic
sanction against Iraq and occupied Kuwait. On August 9, 1990, Saddam Close Iraqi borders
on order to prevent foreign nationals for leaving Iraq and Kuwait. But he retracted this policy
on August 28, 1990 after the United Nations Security Council’s Resolution 664 of August 18,
1990 demanding the release of all foreign national detained in Iraq and Kuwait and resolution
665 of August 25, 1990 authorizing the use of all necessary means to enforce the UN embargo.
Before this time, the Arab League, at an emergency meeting in Cairo on August 10, 1990, had
voted to send troops to Saudi Arabia and King Hussein of Jordan had on August 16, 1990
Assured President Bush that he will close Aqaba to Iraqi commerce, thus finalizing the
implementation of the embargo. Washington had also earlier announced a policy of interdiction
on August 12, 1990 to facilitate the enforcement of the UN embargo and had for the same
purpose also activated its reserve forces on August 22, 1990 this was the first time that the US
activated its reserve forces since the Vietnam war. On October 23 1990, the UN Security
Council passed another resolution calling on Iraq to make reparations to Kuwait for the
Damages that country had suffered following the invasion. But the United States was not
satisfied with that. Instead, it insisted on an offensive option. To this end, it doubled its troops

24
in “Operation Desert Shield” on November 8, 1990 more than 400,000 Iraq responded by
announcing its own military build-up in Kuwait from about 350,000 to more than 600,000 men
the exact figure has not been ascertained till date.. On November 29, 1990 The UN Security
Council passed resolution 678 giving Iraq up to January 15 1991 to leave Kuwait. The
resolution authorized all countries to use “all necessary means” to force Iraq out of Kuwait if
it failed to comply. A lot of frantic diplomatic efforts were made by some Arab leaders and
others for a peaceful resolution of the conflict after this resolution was passed.

c. Operation Desert Storm:-

Up to January 15, 1991 Iraq gave no sign of retreat. It Allied forces, a 28 –nation Multi-national
force under the UN Flag draw near. The battle line was drawn. On January 16, 1991, the long-
awaited war started. President George Bush code-named it “Operation Desert Storm” but
Saddam called it “the Mother of all Battles. For gruesome days Iraq was pounded every now
and then. On February 27, 1991, Iraq announced its withdrawal from Kuwait and the
acceptance of almost a dozen resolutions passed by the UN Security Council. Thus hostilities
in the Gulf War came to an end exactly six months, three weeks and two days after Saddam’s
invasion of Kuwait. To Iraq, it was submission-deterrence, and to the Allied Forces, it was
triumph. But as Rita Ese Adah has argued, the Gulf War was the greatest test the UN has had
it more than 45 years of its existence, and it failed that test, thereby playing out its inherent
weakness. In the history of collective Security however, the Gulf War stands out as a
monumental event. This was the second time in the History of the United Nations. That the
security Council authorized military enforcement action. The first instance was during the
Korean conflict of 1950 already discussed earlier in this chapter. But the Gulf War was the first
time military enforcement was authorized with specific reference to Chapter VII of the United
Nations Charter. It was also the closest that members of the organization have acted in concert
since the UN was formed in 1945.However, when one considers the demands of collective
security, the execution of the Gulf War still fell well below the principles of collective security.
Of the about 182 sovereign nations which were members of the United Nations by 1991, only
28 participated in the “multi-national force” that expelled Iraq from Kuwait. The question is
why did, the overwhelming majority of its members not show concern in the Gulf crisis by
joining forces with the Security Council in the move to resolve it. The Gulf war cannot be
equated with a collective security operation with less than one seventh (1/7) of the members of
the United Nations participating, members of the UN did not respond with spontaneity as

25
members of collective Security system are expected to do. Just like the Korean conflict, the
Gulf war was not a genuine UN action but a manipulation of the organization. The United
States would not have pioneered it if its strategic interest was not involved. The 23 resolution
passed almost every day and their rapid implementation would not have taken place if the
Soviet Union was not in its twilight. The Gulf War was an American project with UN
imprimatur. The series of Negotiations that took place before the outbreak of hostilities which
were between Iraqi officials and US officials, the ratio of troops contributed for the war. the
initiation of resolution; the command of allied troops that fought the war; and the defraying of
the cost of the war, all reveal the United States as the real protagonist in the war. Therefore,
the Gulf war was collective action default of UN, except it is agreed that the United States and
the United Nations are now coterminous. By virtue of its position in the Security Council the
United States gathered together a handful of faithful allies, but failed to galvanize the remaining
156 members whose self-interest lay somewhere outside the Gulf, to a war that portrayed the
UN as a failure.

2. Contemporary Challenges to Collective Security in the UN System:-

1. Global Power Shifts: Emerging countries are putting existing nations' supremacy under
pressure as the geopolitical environment continues to change. This change makes it more
difficult for the UN Security Council (UNSC) to reach consensus and hinders the effectiveness
of collective action.

2. Regional Conflicts and Proxy Wars: Often including numerous state and non-state parties,
conflicts in areas such as the Middle East, Africa, and Eastern Europe are challenging to
resolve. Geopolitical rivalry produce proxy conflicts that increase tensions and impede efforts
towards collective security.

3. Terrorism and Violent Extremism: There are serious risks to global peace and security from
non-state actors like terrorist groups. Collective security measures are compromised by their
ability to operate across borders and take advantage of political instability.

4. Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) proliferate: The proliferation of chemical, biological,

and nuclear weapons increases the likelihood of terrorist attacks and large-scale hostilities. It
takes strong international collaboration and enforcement systems to stop the spread of WMDs.

26
5. Threats to Cybersecurity: The threat of cyberattacks directed on governments, private
companies, and vital infrastructure is increasing for global security. The absence of well-
defined guidelines and policies pertaining to cyberspace impedes endeavors to adequately
tackling this menace.

6. Degradation of the Environment and Climate Change: Natural disasters, resource scarcity,
and climate change can all worsen conflict and displacement. To address these problems and
lessen their impact on security, international cooperation is needed.
7. Mass Atrocities and Human Rights Violations: The UN's mission to protect people and
uphold human rights is challenged by the continued occurrence of mass atrocities such as ethnic
cleansing and genocide in different parts of the world. The notion of state sovereignty and
political differences frequently impede prompt and effective responses.

8. Inadequate Governance and State Fragility: States are more vulnerable to instability and
violence when they have internal conflicts, widespread corruption, and inadequate governance
systems. It will need a sustained commitment to institution-building and conflict prevention to
address the underlying causes of state fragility.

9. Crises of Displacement and Refugees: The extraordinary volume of refugees and internally
displaced people (IDPs) puts a pressure on the stability and resources of the host nations and
regions. Sustainable peace and security depend on resolving disputes and addressing the root
causes of displacement.

VI. CONCLUSION

The concept of collective security has evolved over centuries, from early proposals by Cardinal
Richelieu to its formalization in organizations like the League of Nations and the United
Nations. Though the League was initially successful in contemplating collective security
principles, but due to structural flaws and lack of political will, it failed in its aim. The United
Nations, established after World War II, emphasized principles of sovereign equality and
peaceful dispute resolution. Through peacekeeping missions, such as those in Palestine,
Cambodia, Tajikistan, and the Central African Republic, the UN has worked to prevent
conflicts and promote stability. Despite ongoing challenges, the UN remains committed to

27
maintaining peace and security on a global scale. The United Nations, aims to maintain
international peace and security through effective collective measures. The United Nations
Security Council plays a central role in this by utilizing various tools such as conflict
prevention, peacekeeping operations, imposition of sanctions, and authorization of military
force. Peacekeeping operations, in particular, have been instrumental in resolving conflicts and
establishing peace in war-torn regions, though they have faced both successes and criticisms.
Nevertheless, the collective security initiatives within the UN system faces certain challenges
and criticisms. These include power dynamics within the Security Council, sovereignty
concerns of member states, and resistance to intervention. Case studies such as the Korean War
and the Gulf War highlight the complexities and limitations of collective security efforts,
revealing instances of both success and failure.
Moreover, contemporary challenges such as global power shifts, regional conflicts, terrorism,
weapons proliferation, cybersecurity threats, environmental degradation, human rights
violations, state fragility, and refugee crises further complicate the pursuit of collective security
goals. Even in the presence of such challenges, the UN has been keen as well as determined to
ensure peace and security in the international sphere. It tends to establish mutual cooperation
among the states by regulating them and intervening peacefully to resolve disputes and prevent
its escalation to war. Only with the mutual cooperation and respect for each other’s sovereignty,
the states in the 21st century can tend to develop more peacefully and the UN can make sure
international peace, security and harmony by using collective security measures.

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