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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 04
Temperature Profile
of Internal Structure
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Temperature Profile of Internal Structure

Internal Structure of Earth Sources:
1. Direct Sources:
(a) Volcanic Eruptions:
 Volcanic eruptions provide clues about the composition and temperature of
the Earth's mantle and crust.
 The lava and gasses released during eruptions contain information about the
chemical composition of the Earth's interior, including the presence of
elements such as sulfur and carbon.
 Volcanic eruptions also provide insights into the temperature and pressure
conditions within the Earth's mantle, which can help scientists better
understand the processes that drive plate tectonics and the movement of
magma.
(b) Drilling and Mining:
 Drilling and mining operations can provide direct access to samples of the
Earth's interior.
 By studying the composition and properties of these samples, scientists can
gain insights into the structure and dynamics of the Earth's interior,
including the composition and temperature of different layers.
 However, drilling and mining are expensive and difficult operations, and
access to samples is often limited, so these sources of information are
relatively rare.
 Examples:
i. Kimberlite Diamond Mining:
ii. Continental Deep Drilling Program: The Continental Deep Drilling
Program (CDDP) was a scientific project that aimed to drill a hole
through the Earth's crust in order to study the structure and
composition of the underlying mantle.
iii. Kola Superdeep Borehole: The Kola Superdeep Borehole is a scientific
drilling project that was carried out in Russia in the 1970s and 1980s.
The project aimed to drill a hole through the Earth's crust and into the
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mantle, and reached a depth of 12,262 meters before being halted due
to technical difficulties. Although the project did not succeed in reaching
the mantle, it provided valuable insights into the physical and chemical
properties of the Earth's crust and upper mantle.
iv. Gold and Copper Mining: Gold and copper deposits are often found deep
within the Earth's crust, and mining operations that extract these
metals can provide valuable samples of the Earth's interior. For example,
the Grasberg mine in Indonesia is one of the world's largest copper and
gold mines and has provided valuable samples of ore deposits that
formed deep within the Earth.
2. Indirect Sources:
(a) Meteorites:
 Meteorites are fragments of asteroids or other bodies that have fallen to
Earth.
 By analyzing the chemical and isotopic composition of meteorites, scientists
can gain insights into the composition and history of the early Solar System,
including the processes that led to the formation of planets like Earth.
 Some meteorites contain minerals that are similar to those found in the
Earth's mantle and core, which can provide clues about the composition of
these layers.
(b) Experimental Data from Mineral and Rock Physics:
 Scientists can study the behavior of minerals and rocks under high pressure
and temperature conditions in the laboratory, which provides valuable
information about the properties of materials at different depths within the
Earth.
 By measuring the elasticity, density, and thermal conductivity of these
materials, scientists can make inferences about the physical properties of
different layers within the Earth's interior.
 Experimental data can also be used to help interpret seismic data and refine
models of the Earth's internal structure.
(c) Seismic Waves:
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 Seismic waves are vibrations that travel through the Earth's interior and are
generated by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and man-made explosions.
 By analyzing the behavior of seismic waves as they pass through different
layers of the Earth, scientists can infer information about the Earth's
internal structure, including the composition, density, and temperature of
different layers.
 There are two types of seismic waves: P waves (primary waves) and S waves
(secondary waves), which travel at different speeds and can be detected by
seismometers.

Earthquake Waves

1. Body waves:
Body waves are seismic waves that travel through the Earth's interior, as opposed to
surface waves, which travel along the Earth's surface.
There are two types of body waves:
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(a) P waves (Primary waves):

 P waves are compressional waves that travel faster than any other seismic
wave, including surface waves.
 They can travel through solid rock, liquids, and gasses,and they cause the
ground to compress and expand in the direction of the wave's travel.
 This means that when a P wave reaches a seismometer, the seismometer will
move back and forth in the direction that the wave is traveling.
 P waves can travel through the Earth's core, and they are the first waves to
arrive at a seismic station following an earthquake.

(b) S waves (Secondary waves):

 S waves are transverse waves that move more slowly than P waves.
 They can only travel through solid rock and cause the ground to move up
and down or side to side perpendicular to the direction of the wave's travel.
 This means that when an S wave reaches a seismometer, the seismometer
will move at right angles to the direction that the wave is traveling.
 S waves cannot travel through the Earth's liquid outer core or the Earth's
mantle, and they are usually the second waves to arrive at a seismic station
following an earthquake.
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2. Surface Waves:
 Surface waves are a type of seismic wave that propagate along the boundary
between two media, such as the ground and the air or water.
 They are called surface waves because they travel along the surface rather than
through the interior of the media.
 There are two main types of surface waves: Love waves and Rayleigh waves.
 Love waves are transverse waves that propagate perpendicular to the direction of
wave travel, while Rayleigh waves are a combination of both longitudinal and
transverse waves that propagate in a circular motion.
 Surface waves are typically the most destructive type of seismic waves, causing
the most damage to buildings and other structures during earthquakes.
 This is because surface waves have larger amplitudes and longer wavelengths than
body waves, which can cause significant shaking and ground displacement
(a) Love waves:
 Love waves are named after the British mathematician A.E.H. Love.
 They are a type of surface wave that travels horizontally, perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.
 Love waves are generally faster than Rayleigh waves and can cause significant
damage to buildings and other structures.
 They are often responsible for the destruction seen in earthquakes.
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(b) Rayleigh waves

 Rayleigh waves are named after the British scientist Lord Rayleigh.

 They are a type of surface wave that travels both horizontally and vertically,
in a circular motion.

 Rayleigh waves are generally slower than Love waves but can cause significant
damage due to their large amplitude.

 They are responsible for the rolling motion felt during earthquakes and can
cause liquefaction of soil, leading to landslides and other hazards.

Discontinuities in Interior of the Earth:

The interior of the Earth is not uniform, and there are several types of discontinuities
that exist within it. These include the following:

(a) Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho):

 This is a boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle, located at a depth
of about 5-10 km below the ocean floor and 20-70 km below the continents.

 The Moho is characterized by a sharp increase in seismic velocity, indicating a

change in composition from the relatively low-density crust to the higher-density
mantle.

(b) Gutenberg discontinuity:

 This is a boundary between the Earth's mantle and outer core, located at a depth
of about 2,900 km.

 The Gutenberg discontinuity is marked by a sudden decrease in seismic velocity,

indicating a change in composition from the silicate-rich mantle to the iron-rich
outer core.

(c) Lehmann discontinuity:

 This is a boundary between the Earth's outer and inner core, located at a depth
of about 5,150 km.

 The Lehmann discontinuity is marked by a sudden increase in seismic velocity,

indicating a change in composition from the liquid outer core to the solid inner
core.
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(d) The Conrad discontinuity:

 The Conrad discontinuity separates the lower and upper crust, and is marked by
a change in seismic velocity.
 It is named after Victor Conrad, a geologist who studied the structure of the
Earth's crust in the early 20th century.
 The Conrad discontinuity is located at a depth of around 30-35 kilometers
beneath the continents, and around 15 kilometers beneath the ocean floor.
 The discontinuity is believed to be caused by a change in the composition of the
crust, with the upper crust being composed primarily of granitic rocks and the
lower crust being composed of denser, more mafic rocks.
(e) Repetti Discontinuity:
Repetti Discontinuity refers to the boundary between the upper and lower mantles.

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