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(Download PDF) Universal Secondary Education in India Issues Challenges and Prospects Jandhyala B G Tilak Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Jandhyala B. G. Tilak Editor
Universal
Secondary
Education in
India
Issues, Challenges and Prospects
Universal Secondary Education in India
Jandhyala B. G. Tilak
Editor
Universal Secondary
Education in India
Issues, Challenges and Prospects
123
Editor
Jandhyala B. G. Tilak
Council for Social Development
New Delhi, Delhi, India
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Foreword
In a country like India where knowledge and learning have been accorded a high
philosophical status and a high social status, entire education has to be viewed as a
‘process of great continuity’ rather than an event of discreteness. However, formal
education with specified stages immediately breaks this natural continuity and this
therefore calls for conscious efforts to re-establish it in the interest of the entire
educational sector. It is in this background that one can appreciate initiatives at
regular intervals taken in India to develop a holistic view of education with
keenness to strengthen its parts and efficiently establish their internal linkages.
Some of the economists of education of the developed world of the past advocated
even legitimisation of the segmented view of education when contemplating
strategies of educational development for countries of different levels of economic
development. They recommended that underdeveloped countries should focus their
attention on the development of primary education, developing countries on sec-
ondary education and developed countries on higher education. However, when we
recognise that the ‘option effect’ operates well even in less developed and devel-
oping countries, implying that completers of a particular stage of education would
find options to move to the next stage wide open, this segmented view turns out to
be irrelevant. Unfortunately, the economic factors also seem to strengthen the
stage-specific segmented view as certain economic opportunities seem linked to
specific stages of education. The present volume of insightful articles edited by
Prof. Jandhyala B. G. Tilak presents one such attempt at taking a segmented view
focussing on primarily secondary education in India, though the editor recognises at
the same time the inter-linkages between the three levels, the interdependence on
each other and the need to have a holistic approach in educational planning.
One feels that such a focus is quite warranted at the present juncture in India
because for many decades after the independence policymakers and analysts had
been focussing on primary education and elementary education so much so that
other stages appeared receiving less than their due attention. In fact in order to
achieve universal elementary education, resources should be diverted, they argued,
from higher education in particular to elementary education since there were no
hopes of getting much bigger allocation to the entire educational sector. In this
v
vi Foreword
frenzy, there was practically nobody who could look at the woes of secondary
education. Now of course, this type of indifference cannot continue, thanks to the
relatively better outcomes at the elementary education level due to all the passion
and legitimate advocacy. The option effect seems to be quite powerful, this needs to
be sustained, and transition rates from primary/elementary to secondary education
need to be raised further. Unfortunately, the hurdles in this process are innumerable,
such as: poor learning culture of the families, illiteracy of parents of children,
gender and caste, rural background, commercialisation of education at all levels
particularly in secondary schools, weak government schools and growing influence
of private sector ethos in secondary education with interest in profit chasing and
false notions of institutional and student achievements, less attractive curriculum,
highly regimented functioning of schools distancing children from the households
and the surroundings, alien medium of instruction in schools making learning very
difficult particularly for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and rural children,
inadequate fund flow to secondary schools, inadequate patronage for secondary
education from the state and union governments, location of schools (visualised in
the ‘neighbourhood schools’ by the Kothari Commission), highly discouraging
teaching methods and examination system, ill equipped teachers who are not able to
make learning activity an enjoyable activity for children, inadequate number of
competent teachers, poor involvement of parents in the process of schooling of their
children, high fees not affordable for poor households, very prohibitive restrictions
of the government with regard to the appointments of teachers and other staff and
functioning of schools, absence of economically feasible secondary education and if
needed its termination options without unduly heavy economic costs for children
and their families (the point which had received attention in past, as in the case of
basic education reform of Mahatma Gandhi at the level of primary education and
multi-purpose schooling and in case of vocationalisation a la Mudaliyar Committee
at the middle and secondary levels) and absence of fine-tuning of schooling cal-
endar with the agricultural seasons. In recent years, there are also signs of foreign
players in secondary education making it increasingly removed from indigenous
and national ethos and culture. Political factors have further added to this process
alienating secondary education from the indigenous ethos. All such hurdles are so
formidable that mild doses of initiatives may not bear fruits and significant and big
pushes are required. Apart from the diagnosis of the problems as above, what are
required are the well thought-out strategies of implementation. A thorough exam-
ination of these and many other relevant issues needs to be undertaken to provide a
sound analytical basis for understanding the challenges involved, formulation of
strategies and initiatives for their implementation. Obviously, some of these
problems are likely to be manageable and some are not at all manoeuvrable. This
really poses a further big challenge to policymaking.
I am very pleased to note that the present volume edited by Prof. Jandhyala B.
G. Tilak that includes studies conducted by a number of scholars with insightful
analyses may serve really as a trigger, inspiring further work in the field. Professor
Tilak has been considered in the academic and policy circles as a person with
educational research as his life’s mission. He has authored and edited not only a
Foreword vii
P. R. Panchamukhi
Professor Emeritus and Chairman
Centre for Multidisciplinary
Development Research
Dharwad, Karnataka, India
Acknowledgements
Jandhyala B. G. Tilak
ix
Contents
xi
xii Contents
xv
xvi Editor and Contributors
Contributors
Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi. Her areas of interest include
education of the urban deprived children, inclusive education, right to education
and school leadership.
Ms. Anuradha De has M.A. from University of Calcutta and M.Phil. from
Jawaharlal Nehru University. She worked as Lecturer, Netaji Nagar College,
Kolkata, and Senior Research Fellow, PROBE (Public Report on Basic Education)
team, and is currently Director, Collaborative Research and Dissemination
(CORD), New Delhi.
Prof. Rounaq Jahan is Distinguished Fellow, Centre for Policy Dialogue, Dhaka,
Bangladesh, and Adjunct Professor, International Affairs, School of International
and Public Affairs, Columbia University. She had been Research Fellow at the Chr.
Michelsen Institute, Bergen, Norway, in 1979; Research Fellow in the Department
of Political Science and Committee on South Asia, University of Chicago, in 1975–
1976; Visiting Fellow at the Committee on South Asia, University of Chicago, in
1980; Senior Research Associate at the Center for Asian Development Studies,
Boston University, in 1978; and Research Associate at the Center for International
Affairs and the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, from
1971 to 1972. She served several policymaking bodies established by the
Government of Bangladesh in an advisory capacity in the fields of education,
culture, rural development, women and population, and UNDP, UNICEF, USAID,
OECD, The Rockefeller Foundation, as well as NGOs like International Women’s
Health Coalition. She also served as Head of the Programme on Rural Women,
Employment and Development Department at the International Labour
Organization, as Coordinator of the Programme on Integration of Women in
Development, United Nations Asia Pacific Development Centre (APDC), and as
Member of the advisory board of Human Rights Watch, the Population Council, the
international council of the Asia Society, and the Advisory Committee on rural
development at ILO.
Dr. Charu Jain works as Associate Fellow, National Council of Applied
Economic Research, New Delhi. Prior to this, she had worked at TNS India Ltd.
and PHD Chamber of Commerce and Industry (PHDCCI), New Delhi. Her areas of
research interest include socio-economic issues, gender and educational studies,
consumer studies and developmental changes. She has worked in the area of
large-scale consumer studies, industrial surveys, housing studies, agriculture and
macroeconomic policy issues. Her current research focusses on the agricultural
outlook and handloom sector. She received her Ph.D. in economics from School of
Social Sciences (SOSS), Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), New
Delhi.
Prof. Praveen Jha is Professor at the Centre for Economic Studies and Planning
(CESP) in the School of Social Sciences at Jawaharlal Nehru University in New
Delhi. He has also been Visiting Fellow at University of Bremen, Germany, and
Tianjin University of Finance and Economics Tianjin, China, and Visiting Senior
xviii Editor and Contributors
and opportunity costs. The consistency with which the correlation between economic
status of the households and participation in secondary education, or drop-outs from
secondary education, or being out of schools exists, is indeed very striking, similar
to the pattern shown earlier by Tilak (2002) in case of literacy and other levels of
education. Low economic conditions do not allow families to send their children to
secondary/higher secondary education, and inability to become educated, in turn,
affects their ability to improve their economic status and to be active partners in
national development.
Despite increase in the gross enrolment ratio, the issues of social access and equity
remain persistent. Social, gender and income disparities continue to be reflected in
gaps in learning levels and drop-out of school. Wide regional variations are reflected
in the structure of school education, management, infrastructure facilities, teacher
deployment, quality, learning achievements, etc. While quite a few initiatives have
been made towards improving secondary education in many states, the system is char-
acterised by weak implementation of educational reforms, ineffective teacher training
programmes and the low importance accorded to school leadership. According to
Mythili, there were five major leadership factors in the Indian context, which affect
the performance of the school system as a whole, namely vision building, goal setting,
organisational or school improvement, commitment and goal achieving, and on all
fronts there is need for improvement.
There have been significant changes in the labour market in the last two decades
which created pressures for skill improvement in India. The question that arises
in the present context is how our education system, especially secondary school
system, will cope with this requirement. The relevance of linking the skill devel-
opment with secondary schooling can be viewed in two ways: to reduce the labour
search cost in the domestic and international labour markets; and skill development
for self-employment and self-sufficiency for rural and urban youth in India, which
promotes upward mobility for socially backward classes. Apart from vocational and
technical education at school level, and training at post-secondary level institutions,
little has been done on promoting skills among youth for a long period. In fact,
as Mona Sedwal shows, even vocational education programme at secondary level
has been elusive; it did not take off well. As per some recent statisitcs, only 5% of
the Indian labour force in the age group of 20–24 has received vocational training.
It is difficult to estimate skill shortages. But it is widely known that the skill gap—
between demand and supply—is increasing over time. The government of India has
launched a major programme of skill development with a target of imparting skill
intensive training to 500 million by 2022. The training programmes should impart
both ‘general’ and ‘specific’ skills (Becker 1975), while education imparts ‘soft’
and ‘hard’ skills in addition to knowledge. The costs of ‘general’ training need to
be met by industry, training for ‘specific’ skills by firms, and costs of education by
the state (Tilak 1994). As Sedwal argues, what is needed are innovative solutions
for emerging demands, changing of funding mechanism from a supply to a demand-
driven model, transfer of public resources on the basis of input or output criteria,
a flexible education system, enabling basic education that provides the foundation
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donne-t-elle pas à l’esprit une sorte d’apaisement bienfaisant, cette
sérénité de l’aéronaute ou de l’aviateur qui vogue dans l’espace ?
Peut-être cette influence d’une vérité neuve s’exerce-t-elle en ce
moment même sur nos cerveaux ? Peut-être modifie-t-elle le sens
de nos élans, de nos aspirations ? Mais la métamorphose est trop
fraîche, trop actuelle, pour que nous en prenions nettement
conscience.
La connaissance de l’avenir.
L’héritage du passé.
La vie en souplesse.