Unit 2 : Transmission Media and Switching

2.1 Communication Media (Transmission Media)-

A transmission media is the medium over which information travels

from the sender to receiver called as transmission media.

In other words a communication channel is also called as a medium.

Fig- Transmission Media

Guided Media-

In a Guided transmission media the signals are sent through to a

specific (solid) path using wire or cable is called as Guided Media.
Guided media is used in point to point communication. Guided
media is used high speed, good security and low cast requirements.
❖ Guided media are further divided in three Types.

1) Twisted Pairs Cable

2) Coaxial Cable
3) Fiber Optics Cable

1) Twisted Pairs Cable –

Fig- Twisted Pairs Cable

-These are a type of guided media. Twisted pair cables have tw
-Twisted pair cable are in point to point and point to multipoint
communication, telephone systems etc.

➢ Advantages of Twisted pair cable-

1) It can be used to carry both analog and digital data
2) It is relatively easy to implement and terminate.
3) It is the low expensive media of transmission for short distances.
4) If portion of a twisted pair cable is damaged it does not affect
the entire network.

❖ There are two types of twisted pair:-

a) Unshielded twisted pair (UTP).
b) Shielded twisted pair (STP).
 a) Unshielded twisted pair (UTP).

-UTP cables are the most common telecommunications medium.

➢ Advantages of Unshielded twisted pair

1) These cables are cost-effective and easy to install.
2) UTP is more used than STP
3) They are generally used for short-distance transmission of both
voice and data.
4) It is less costly as compared to other types of cables.
5) It has high speed capacity.
6) Flexible
7) Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies

➢ Unshielded twisted pair-

1) Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable

2) Provides less protection from interference (EMI).
3) The connection established using UTP is not secure.
4) Moderate data rates
5) Noise and EM interference is high
 b) Shielded twisted pair (STP).

-These e overall structure of the cable. It also reduces noise

ted around each other.

➢
Advantages of Shielded twisted pair-
to shielding and twisting of wires.
1) Increases the signaling rate
2) It support data rate upto several Mbps

Disadvantages of Shielded twisted pair-

1) Difficult to manufacture
2) Expensive than UTP

3) The length of the segment is similar to UTP for these cables.

4) They require a lot of maintenance which increases the cost more.
5) STP is used only for IBM Computers.
 2) Coaxial Cable –

Fig- Coaxial Cable

−The name coaxial is because it contains two conductors that are

parallel to each other and share common axis.
- Inner conductor is made of copper which is surrounded by PVC
insulation.
- The outer conductor is metal foil, mesh or both.
-Outer metallic conductor is used as a shield against noise.
-The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath.
-The outermost part is the plastic cover which protects the whole
cable.
- Co-axial cable is much less susceptible to interference and cross
talk than the twisted pair.
- Co-axial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital signal.

-It is used to carry more than 10,000 voice channels at a time.

Most popularly used in the cable TV system.

-Due to the shield provided, this cable has excellent noise immunity.
This cable is suitable for point to point and point to multipoint.

-These cables are costlier than twisted pair cables but they are cheaper
than the optical fiber cable.

➢ There are two types of Coaxial cables-

 1) BaseBand- Baseband transmits a single signal at a time
with very high speed.
2) BroadBand- It transmits multiple signal using different
frequencies. It covers large area when compared with

➢ Advantages of Coaxial Cable-

1) Excellent noise immunity due to the shield
2) Large bandwidth
3) Losses are low
4) Support high data rate
5) Ease of installation
6) Used in long distance telephone lines

➢ Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable-

1) Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
2) Difficult to install and expensive when compared
with twisted pair.
3) If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.
4) Costlier than the twisted pair cable

➢ Application of Coaxial Cable-

1)Cable TV
2)Traditional Ethernet LAN
3)Telephone network
4)Digital trasmission
3)Fiber Optics Cable –

Fig- Fiber Optics Cable

- A fibre optic cable is made of high quality of thin glass or plastic

and is used to transfer digital data signals in the form of light up
to distance ( long distance) of thousands of miles.
- Fibre optic cables carry communication signals using pulses of
light generated by small lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
- Fibre optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic
interference, so noise and distortion is very less
- The cable consists of one or more strands of glass, each only
slightly thicker than a human hair.
- The centre of each strand is called the core, which provides the
pathway for light to travel. The core is surrounded by a layer of
glass called cladding that reflects light inward to avoid loss of
signal and allow the light to pass through bends in the cable.
No light escapes the glass core because of this reflective
cladding.
- Optical fibers use the principle of ‘reflection’ to pass light
through a channel.
Optical Fiber Communication
- A transmitter (Light Source) at senders end sends a Light across
the fiber.
 - A receiver at the other end makes use of Light Sensitive
transistor to detect the absence or presence of light to indicate 0
or 1.

• The transmission medium is an ultra-thin fiber of glass.

• Light enters the cylindrical glass or plastic core at small angles are
reflected and
propagates along the fiber.
• The detector generates an electrical pulse when light falls on it.

Two different types of light sources are used in fiber optic system.
The Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Injection Laser Diode (ILD)

➢ Types of Fiber Propagation Modes-

1)Single Mode-
In single Mode fiers light follow a single path through the
core is called as Single Mode.

2) Multimode-
In Multimode fiers light follow a Multi path through the
core is called as Single Mode.
A) Multimode step-index fiber
- the reflective walls of the fiber move the light pulses to the receiver
B) Multimode graded-index fiber
- acts to refract the light toward the center of the fiber by variations
in the Density

➢ Advantages of Fiber Potical-

1) Provides high quality transmission of signals at very high speed
2) These are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise
and distortion is very less.
3) Highly secure due to tap difficulty and lack of signal radiation.
4) Used for both analog and digital signals
5) Smaller size and light weight
6)Signals at higher data rates can be sent.

➢ Disadvantages of Fiber Potical

1) It is expensive
2) Difficult to install. requires highly skilled installers
3) Maintenance is expensive and difficult.
4) Joining the optical fiber is a difficult job

➢ Applications of fiber optical cale-

1) Telephones
2) LANs - local area networks
3) Military
4) Internet
 ❖ Unguided (Wireless) Transmission Media-

-An unguided media also called as wireless media, does not use

a conductor or wire as a communication channel.

-Instead it uses the air or vacuum as medium to carry the

Information from transmitter to receiver.

• Types of Unguided Transmission Media-

1. Radio wave
2. Microwave
3. Infrared
4. Satellite

1)Radio wave-

-Radio wave have frequencies between 10 KHz and 1 gigaheartz.

the range of electromagnetic spectrum between 10 KHz and 1GHz is
called radio frequency (RF).

- Radio waves are omnidirectional means they travel in all the

directions from the source.

-The power of the RF signal is determined by the antenna and

transceiver.

-Radio frequency is easy to generate because it has large

wavelength and can travel long distance.
-Radio waves are generated by radio transmitters and received by
radio receivers. Both transmitters and receivers use antennas to
radiate or capture radio signals

- It can penetrate walls easily, so these waves are widely used for
communication both indoors and outdoors. -Each range has
characteristics that affect its use in computer network.

- The computer data also transmitted in the form of radio

waves. It does not require a direct physical connection
between computers. Each computer attaches to an antenna
that transmits and receives radiofrequency.

- The radio wave one of the types of wireless media in which

electromagnetic (radio) energy travels from a transmitting
antenna to a receiving antenna.

- There are two principal ways in which electromagnetic

energy travels from a transmitting antenna to a receiving
antenna. One is by ground waves that travel near the surface
of the earth and the other is by sky waves that are reflected
back to earth from the ionosphere.

- It is used for the radio and TV programs for the portable

phone.

-Radio wave include the following types-

1) Short wave used in AM radio

2) Very high frequency used in FM radio and TV

3) Ultra high frequency used in TV.

 Fig- Radio Wave

➢ Advantages of Radio wave-

1) Radio waves are omnidirectional means they travel in all the
directions from the source
2) This method of communicating does not require wires
to transmit information.
3) It can penetrate walls.
4) Radio waves uses for multicasting (one to many)
5) used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones

➢ Disadvantages of Radio wave-

1) It gets effected by weather effects like rains,
thunderstorms etc
2) Radio wave have frequencies between 10 KHz and 1
gigaheartz

➢ Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one

sender and many receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a
radio wave.
2)Microwave-

-Microwave are basically unidirectional electromagnetic wave with

a frequency range from 1 to 300 GHz.

- Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in

one direction

-Microwaves use space wave propagation. The space wave

propagation is also called as line of sight communication.

-This means that microwaves must be transmitted in straight line and

no obstructions, such as buildings or mountains, between microwave
stations.

-To avoid possible obstructions, microwave antennas often are

positioned on the tops of buildings, towers, or mountains.

-When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly

focused.

-This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be

aligned.
-Microwaves are of two types:

a) Terrestrial microwave-

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that

transmits the focused beam of a radio signal from one
ground-based microwave transmission antenna to
another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the
frequency in the range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and
receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the waves sent by
the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send
a beam to another antenna which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas
mounted on the towers are the direct sight of each other.

B) Satellite microwave communication.

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the

earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it
offers more flexibility than cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by
using satellite communication.

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the

earth station, and it amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is
retransmitted to another earth station.
➢ Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than

the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the
distance from the centre of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless
communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather
forecasting, radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile
communication, etc.

➢ Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time

and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on
regular periods so that it remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this
reason, another launch of the satellite has to be planned
before it becomes non-functional.

➢ Advantages Of Microwave:

1) Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

2) It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any
land for the installation of cables.
3) Communication over oceans can be achieved by using
microwave transmission.
Disadvantages Of Microwave

1) Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of

microwave transmission.
2) A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather
condition. This means that any environmental change
such as rain, wind can distort the signal.

3)Infrared-

-Infrared signals, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be
used for short-range communication. Infrared signals, having high
frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.

-This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one

system and another; a short-range communication system in one
room cannot be affected by another system in the next room.

-When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with

the use of the remote by our neighbors. However, this same
characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long range
communication.

-In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building

because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with
the communication.

- One important difference between infrared and

microwave transmission is that they don’t penetrate walls.

➢ Advantages of Infrared wave-

1) Very large bandwidth
2) No electromagnetic interference
3) It does not penetrate walls- so no interference between
the applications
 ➢ Disadvantages of Infrared wave-
1)It can use only for short range applications
2)The infrared transmission from the sun
Can interference with the Infrared wave communications.
3)Poor Performance
4)Low speed of operations.

➢ Applications
o TV Remote control
o Guidance in weapon system
o Wireless keyboards and mouse.

4) Satellite-

-Satellites are the bodies that revolve around the earth just in same
way moon revolves around the earth. Satellite performs the functions
of an antenna and the repeater together. Ground station A sends
information to ground station B via the satellite.

Fig -Satellite
-Two frequency bands are used for signals from earth to satellite
(uplink) and from satellite to earth (downlink).
-An earth station transmits information signal to the satellite using a
highly directional dish antenna.
- The satellite receives this signal, processes it and transmits it back
at a reduced frequency.
- The receiving earth stations will receive this signal using parabolic
dish antennas pointed towards the satellite.
-The signal which is being transmitted upwards to the satellite is
called as the "up-link" and 4 is normally at a frequency of 6 GHz. (no,
signal which is transmitted back to the receiving earth station is
called as the "down 'ink" and it is normally at a frequency of 4 GHz.

- Thus a satellite has to receive process and transmit the signal. All
these functions are performed by a unit called satellite transponder
- A communication satellite generally has two sets of transponders,
each set having 12 transponders making it a total of 24 transponders.

- The uplink signal received by a transponder is weak and downlink

signal transmuted by the transponder is strong. Therefore to avoid
interference between them, the uplink and downlink frequencies are
selected to be of different values.

Satellite takes uplink signal coming from sender, processes it and

converts to downlink frequency and transmit it towards earth. The
coverage area over which the signal of satellite is available is called
as footprint of satellite.

➢ Advantages of Satellite-
1) Large coverage area

2) Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless

communication applications.
3) It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather
forecasting, radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile
communication, etc.
4) Easy Share information for one station to another .
 ➢ Disadvantage of Satellite-
1) Satellite designing and development requires more time

and higher cost.

2) The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on
regular periods so that it remains in orbit.
3) The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this
reason, another launch of the satellite has to be planned
before it becomes non-functional.

➢ Application of Satellite-
1) TV channel
2) Long distance telephone
3) Satellite phone in military
4) For GPS system

2.3 Line of Sight (LoS) Transmission-

-Line of sight (LoS) is a type of propagation that can transmit and

receive data only where transmit and receive stations are in view of
each other without any sort of an obstacle between them. FM radio,
microwave and satellite transmission are examples of line-of-sight
Communication.

Fig- Line of Sight (LoS) Transmission

- The line-of-sight propagation will not be smooth if there

occurs any obstacle in its transmission path. As the signal can
travel only to lesser distances in this mode, this transmission
is used for infrared or microwave transmissions.

2.3 Network Classification Based on Transmission

Technology-
1) Broadcast networks
2) Point-to-point networks

1) Broadcast networks

-Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is

shared or used by all the machines on the network. Short messages
called packets sent by any machine are received by all the others.

-Broadcast systems generally use a special code in the address field

for addressing a packet to all the concerned computers. This mode of
operation is called broadcasting.

-In a broadcast networks all the machines on the network use or share
a single communication channel. Short messages called packets sent
by any machine are received by all the others.

-Some broadcast systems also support transmission to only a group of

few machines known as multicasting.
-Broadcasting is used primarily in the local area networks.

-In this network, message that is sent by node is received by all of

other connected nodes to network and share common medium of
communication. Broadcast networks also avoid procedures of
complex routing of switched network by simply confirming and
ensuring that each of transmission of nodes is basically received by all
of other nodes in the network. This is reason why broadcast network
has single communications channel.
 ➢ Advantages of Broadcast Networks –
1) In this network, packets are generally transmitted and
received by all of computers.
2) It allows multicasting in the network.
3) It has no limit. Even events can also run as long as
required.
4) It ensures better utilization of all resources available.
➢ Disadvantages of Broadcast Networks –
1) It cannot accommodate huge number of devices.
2) It doesn’t allow personalization of message.

2) Point-to-point networks-

-Point to point networks consists of many connections between

individual pairs of machines. To go from the source to the destination
a packet on these types of network may have to go through
intermediate computers before they reach the desired computer.

-As a general rule small networks which are localized in a

geographical sense tend to use broadcasting (e.g. LAN) whereas
networks located in wide geographical area use point to point
transmission (e.g. WAN).

-In point to point networks packets can take multiple roots to reach
the same destination.
-Hence routing algorithms play an important role in the point to point
networks.

- Point-to-Point Networks or Point-to-Point Connection is type of

private data connection that is connecting securely two or more
locations for private data services.

- A point-to-point or P2P (Data Link) also gives or provides path from

one point that is fixed to other point being fixed. It is very closed
network data transport service that does not travel through public
Internet. This network includes various connections among individual
pairs of machine. A packet present on these types of networks might
be needed to go through intermediate computers before they reach
desired or destination computer. The packets also need to follow
multiple routes of different length sizes.

➢ Advantages of Point-to-Point Networks –

1) It increases productivity.
2) It generally uses leased lines so that speeds are guaranteed.
3) It provides better security so that data can be transferred
securely with confidence

➢ Disadvantages of Point-to-Point Networks –

1)With this network, we can only connect two sites.
2)It is very expensive for distant locations.

2.3 Multiplexing techniques-

-Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple
data streams over a single medium. The process of combining the data
streams is known as multiplexing.

-Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer

(MUX) that combines n input lines to generate a single output line.
Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output
line.

-Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer

(DEMUX) available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal
into its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we
can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.

➢ Different multiplexing techniques are

1)Frequency Division multiplexing
2)Time division multiplexing
1) Frequency Division Multiplexing:
- It is an analog technique. Frequency Division Multiplexing is a
technique in which the available bandwidth of a single transmission
medium is subdivided into several channels.

-In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided

into several frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given
to different devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1
to 5.
-The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using
modulation techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to
form a composite signal.

-The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth

into different frequency channels and allocate them to different
devices.

-Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted

into frequency bands and then combined to form a composite signal.

-The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as
sub-carriers. They are represented as f1,f2..fn.

-FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

-When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used. FDM is an analog
technology. FDM divides the spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical
channels and allocates one user to each channel. Each user can use the
channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it. All
channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each
other. Channels are separated by guard bands. Guard band is a
frequency which is not used by either channel.

Fig- Frequency Division Multiplexing

➢ Advantages Of FDM:
1)FDM is used for analog signals.
2)FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
3)A Large number of signals can be sent through an
FDM simultaneously.
4)It does not require any synchronization between sender
and receiver.

➢ Disadvantages Of FDM:
1) FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are
required.
 2) It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
3) A Large number of modulators and filter are required.
4) It requires a high bandwidth channel.
5) Intermodulation distortion takes place.

➢ Applications Of FDM:
1)FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
2) It is used in FM and AM broadcasting
3)Telephone systems.

2)Time Division Multiplexing:

-TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on

analog signals as well.

-In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals

operate at the same time with different frequency, but in case of
Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the
same frequency with different time.

-In TDM the shared channel is divided among its user by means
of time slot. Each user can transmit data within the provided time
slot only.

-Digital signals are divided in frames, equivalent to time slot i.e.

frame of an optimal size which can be transmitted in given time
slot. TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e.
Multiplexer and Demultiplexer are timely synchronized and both
switch to next channel simultaneously.
 Fig. Time Division Multiplexing

-When channel A transmits its frame at one end, the De-multiplexer

provides media to channel A on the other end. As soon as the channel
A’s time slot expires, this side switches to channel B. On the other
end, the De-multiplexer works in a synchronized manner and provides
media to channel B. Signals from different channels travel the path in
interleaved manner

1.TDM is the digital multiplexing technique.

2. In TDM, the channel/link is divided on the basis of on the basis of

time.

3. Total time available in the channel is divided between several

users.

4. Each user is allotted a particular time interval called time slot or

time slice during which the data is transmitted by that user.

5. Thus each sending device takes control of entire bandwidth of the

channel for fixed amount of time.

6. In TDM the data rate capacity of the transmission medium should

be greater than the data rate required by sending or receiving devices.

7. In TDM all the signals to be transmitted are not transmitted

simultaneously. Instead, they are transmitted one-by-one.

8. Thus each signal will be transmitted for a very short time. One
cycle or frame is said to be complete when all the signals are
transmitted once on the transmission channel.

9. The TDM system can be used to multiplex analog or digital

signals, however it is more suitable for the digital signal multiplexing.
10. The TDM signal in the form of frames is transmitted on the
common communication medium.

There are two types of TDM:

1)Synchronous TDM
2)Asynchronous TDM

1)Synchronous TDM-
-A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned
to every device.
-In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time
slots are organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have
data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.

Fig- Synchronous TDM

2)Asynchronous TDM-
An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not
fixed as in the case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to
only those devices which have the data to send. Therefore, we can say
that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the data
from active workstations.
 Fig- Asynchronous TDM

➢ Advantages of TDM-
4) Full available channel bandwidth can be utilized for each
channel.
5) Intermodulation distortion is absent.
6) TDM circuitry is not very complex.
7) The problem of crosstalk is not severe.

➢ Disadvantages of TDM-
1) Synchronization is essential for proper operation.
2) Due to slow narrowband fading, all the TDM channels may
get wiped out.

➢ Application of TDM-
1)Digital telephone
2)Multiplexing of digital signals
3)Satellite communications
4)Wireless communication applications.
2.4 Switching:
A switched network is made of a series if interconnected nodes
is called as switches.

1) Circuit Switching
2) Packet Switching

1) Circuit Switching:
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated
communication path, it is called circuit switching.
In circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be established so
that the data transfer can take place.
-Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications which use
circuit switching may have to go through three phases:
⚫ Establish a circuit
⚫ Transfer the data
⚫ Disconnect the circuit
 Fig –Circuit Switching

-Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is

the best suitable example of circuit switching. Before a user can make
a call, a virtual path between callers and called is established over the
network.

• Circuit Switching is used in telephone networks. In telephone

network, there is a two-way real time transmission of voice signal
across a network.

• In circuit switching the path which voice signal takes from sender
to receiver is fixed as long as that conversation is an active.
Before conversation starts the path between sender and receiver is
established. This establishment of path is known as connection
setup.
• Once, the path is established data transfer starts and all voice
signals coming from that sender specific to that particular
connection follow same path.
• After the whole data transfer both the parties who were engaged
in conversation release the connection .this is known as
connection-oriented approach. Telephone networks are always
connection oriented. Anything that is connection oriented means
reliability and good quality.

• Figure shows circuit switching concept. In circuit switching,

routing (selection of path over network) is made when path is
setup across the network.
• After the link has been set between sender and receiver,
information is forwarded continuously over the link. After the
link has set up, no additional address information about receiver
is required.
• In circuit switching, a dedicated path is established between
sender and receiver which is maintained for entire duration of
conversation.

Fig –Circuit Switching

➢ Advantages Of Circuit Switching

1) In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication
channel is dedicated.
2) Circuit Switching
3) In Circuit Switching because of the dedicated path there is no
delay in data flow.
4) It has no waiting time at any switch and the data is transmitted
without any delay
5) Reordering is not required.
6) No problem of message traffic
7) Information or data is transferred continuously
8) Delay are small
9) No addressing needed during the data transfer phase.
 ➢ Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching
1) It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a
dedicated path is required for each connection.
2) In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data
can be transferred even if the channel is free.
3) It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and
no data is transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
Take long time to establish connection

➢ Application Of Circuit Switching-

1)Telephone System

2) Packet Switching:
The entire message is broken down into smaller chunks called
packets. The switching information is added in the header of each
packet and transmitted independently.
It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small size
packets and they do not take much resource either on carrier path or in
the internal memory of switches.

Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from multiple

applications can be multiplexed over the carrier. The internet uses
packet switching technique. Packet switching enables the user to
differentiate data streams based on priorities. Packets are stored and
forwarded according to their priority to provide quality of service.
-The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message
is sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are
sent individually.
-The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets
are given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source
address, destination address and sequence number.

-Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as
possible. All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in
correct order.

- If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent

to resend the message. If the correct order of the packets is reached,
then the acknowledgment message will be sent. 1``

➢ There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

1) Datagram Packet switching
2) Virtual Circuit Switching

1) Datagram Packet switching:

-It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a

datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet
contains the information about the destination and switch uses this
information to forward the packet to the correct destination. The
packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
- In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not
fixed.Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the
packets. Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless
switching.

3) Virtual Circuit Switching-

Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented
switching. In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route
is established before the messages are sent.

-Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the
connection between sender and receiver.
In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a
diagram:

-In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver
respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection
between the sender and receiver.
-When a route is established, data will be transferred.
After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the
receiver that the message has been received.

-If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for
the termination.
➢
➢ Advantages of packet switching-
1) Priorities can be used
2) Data protection
3) Errors are corrected by retransmission
4) It allows simultaneous usage of the same channel by multiple
users.
5) Data delivery can continue
6) Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted.
This ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides
reliable communication.

➢ Disadvantages of packet switching-

1) Delays are longer than those in circuit switching
2) More processing required at node
3) Complicated protocol are needed to deliver them
4) packet switching High installation costs
5) Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those
applications that require low delay and high-quality services.

➢ Application Of Packet Switching-

1) Internet
2) Local Area Network

6. Delay less 6.Delay more

7.Efficiency less 7.Efficiecy more
8.Bandwidth more 8. Bandwidth less