EM Waves

Overview of Presentation

 Vector Calculus

 Maxwell’s Equations

 EM Waves Propagation
Vector Calculus
Introduction
 The development of physics has been aided by
mathematical tools. These tools generalize
physical relations thereby offering deeper
interpretation.

 The developments in calculus and vectors have

played an important role in treatise of physics.

 These two tools, when merged together, yield

vector calculus, which is one of the potent tools.

 We plan to introduce concepts of vector calculus.

Concept of Field
The field can be defined as the region of space in which a physical
quantity has unique value at each point.

 If the physical quantity is a  The region of space where

scalar, then in region of space of the vector quantity has

interest, it has unique magnitude unique value (magnitude and
at every point and is referred to direction) at every point, is
as scalar field. referred to as a vector field.

 Common scalar fields in physics  The common vector fields

are temperature, electrostatic are electric field, magnetic
potential, gravitational potential field, gravitational field etc.
   
etc. 
 E  E ( r )  E ( x, y , z ) 

 ˆ 
 
 E  ˆ
i E  ˆ
jE  k E z  
U  U ( x, y, z )  U (r ) x y
Derivative of a Field
 The common properties associated
 The physical quantities, which are .
with derivatives of fields are:
the function of position coordinates, 
d  dA
are represented by scalar and (cA)  c
dt dt
 
vector fields depending upon
requirements of their specification. dt
 
d   dA dB
A B 
dt dt

 
 When fields are treated through
dt
 
d   dA   dB
A B 
dt
 B  A
dt
calculus they behave in same  
manner as functions of one or more
d
dt
 

A B 
dA
dt

 B  A
 dB
dt
  
variables. d
dt
 


A.B  C 
dA
dt
   dB   
 B  C  A.  C  A.B 
dt
dC
dt
 The limits and continuity of field are 
d  d  dA
defined in the similar way as that for (A)  A
dt dt dt
a function treated in calculus.
U U U
dU  dx  dy  dz
x y z
  
 E E E
dE  dx  dy  dz
x y z
The Del Operator
   
 The Del operator is expressed as:   iˆ  ˆj  kˆ
x y z

 This operator, by itself, is abstract in nature and carries no physical

significance. However it yields meaning when operating on a vector or a
scalar field. The Del operator, while acting on the scalar or vector field can
generate the following:
o Gradient: When del operator acts on a scalar field, it generates gradient
denoting the slope of the field in the direction of maximal increase which is also
the direction of the gradient vector.
o Divergence: The del operator mimics like a vector virtually in all situations. It
 
can form scalar product with vector field (i.e.   A) to yield divergence of vector
field which itself is a scalar quantity.
o Curl: The del operator can also result in vector resultant through cross product
 
with vector field (i.e.  A ) which is often referred to as Curl of vector field.
 is a vector operator that acts
upon T, not a vector that
multiplies T.
Gradient
Find the gradient of following :

1. r  x2  y2  z 2
2. f ( x, y , z )  x 2  y 3  z 4
3. f ( x, y , z )  x 2 y 3 z 4
4. f (r )  r n
5. f ( x, y, z )  e x sin y ln z
1
6. f (r )  n
r
 
7. f (r )  C  r
Interpretation of Gradient
Fundamental Theorem for Gradients

 If a path integral is evaluated for gradient of a scalar field (T), then

its value depends solely on the value of scalar field at end points.

 It does not depend anyway on the path taken between the end

points and is referred to as fundamental theorem for gradients

 It can be expressed mathematically as:

 
b  
T  dl  T (b)  T (a)
a
 e.g.: Height of Eiffel tower.

 The path integral of gradient of scalar field over a closed loop is

always zero.
Line integrals of gradients are path independent.
Divergence of a Vector Calculate divergence of the
following vectors :

1. r  xxˆ  xyˆ  zzˆ

2. r  zzˆ

3. r  x 2 xˆ  3xz 2 yˆ  2 zzˆ

4. r  y 2 xˆ  (2 xy  z 2 ) yˆ  2 yzzˆ

5. r  xyxˆ  2 yz yˆ  3 xzzˆ
Gauss’ s/Green’s Divergence Theorem
 Gauss Divergence theorem connects the surface to volume integrals.
 It is a general relation which states that the total normal flux of vector field
through a closed surface is equal to the volume integral of divergence of vector
field over the volume enclosed by the closed surface.
Stoke’s Theorem
This is general relation which states that circulation of vector field over a
closed loop is equal to surface integral of curl of vector field over the area of
the surface enclosed by the close loop used in evaluation of circulation.

   
 B  dl 
C
 curlB  dS
S

Stoke’s Theorem
Curl of a Vector Field
 Circulation: The line integral of a vector field function along a closed path in
 

the field is termed as circulation. It is expressed mathematically as: C  B  dl

 Maximum Circulation: The circulation depends upon the orientation of the

area bound by the closed curve with respect to the direction of the vector
field. The value of circulation gets maximized for a particular orientation of
the vector area enclosed by closed curve and is called maximum circulation.

 Maximum Circulation as Pseudo Vector: If the direction of vector field is

oblique to all the axes of co-ordinate system, then we can generate three
components of maximum circulation by determining the finite value of
circulation by orienting the area of closed curve parallel to three principal
planes of the co-ordinate system. These three components define maximum
circulation as a pseudo vector, whose direction is defined (by right hand rule
used to obtain direction of angular quantities) by sense in which closed
curve is traversed.
 Superposition of Circulation: If the surface enclosed by the loop is divided

into large number of small loops, then the net circulation is the sum of
circulation over the constituting loops. Hence we can write mathematically as:
  n  
 B  dl    B  dl
C i 1 Ci

 Curl of Vector Field: The maximum value of circulation per unit area drawn

around a point, when the area enclosed by the curve tends to zero gives the
curl of the vector field. It can be expressed mathematically as:
 1  
CurlB  Lim
S 0 S 
C
B  dl

 Interpretation: The curl is associated with whirling motion of a vector field

about the point. It is a pseudo vector along the direction of vector area.

 Components: The three components of Curl of vector field are given as:
curlB   
  1  
x  curlB  iˆ  Lim
S x 0 S 
x Sx
B  d l

curlB   
  1  
y  curlB  ˆj  Lim
S y 0 S 
y Sy
B  d l

curlB   
  1  
z  curlB  kˆ  Lim  B  dl
S z 0 S
z Sz
 Irrotational Fields Solenoidal Fields
 Vector fields, that obey the  Vector fields, that obey the
relation 𝛻 × 𝐸=0, are irrotational relation 𝛻. 𝐸 =0, are solenoidal
fields. fields.

 Such a field can be expressed  Such a field can be expressed

as gradient of scalar potential as gradient of vector potential

(V) as 𝐸=-𝛻V. Ԧ as 𝐸=𝛻x𝐴.
(𝐴) Ԧ

 Line integral of such a field is  The surface integral of this field

given as: obeys the condition that:

b
 
 E  dl  E (b)  E (a)
a
‫𝐸 װ‬. 𝑑𝑎=0
 
 E  dl  0
Del Operator: General Rules
The calculation of ordinary derivative is facilitated by number of general
rules. We wish to enlist the corresponding general rules for scalar fields in
this section:

 Rule I (Addition of functions)

d
 f  g  
df dg
dx dx dx
In the similar spirit we can have the following relations related to gradient,
divergence and curl of sum of fields:
  
 ( f  g )  f  g
      
  ( A  B)    A    B
      
  ( A  B)    A    B
  Rule II(Multiplication by a constant)
d
kf   k df
dx dx
 
 ( kf )  kf
   
  ( kA)  k  A
   
  ( kA)  k  A
 Rule III (Product Rule)

d
 fg   f  g
dg df
dx dx dx
  
( fg )  fg  gf
  
        
      
     
 A B  A   B  B    A  A B  B  A
 
     
  fA  f  A  A   f
  
 
     

  ( A  B)  B    A  A    B

     
  f A  f   A  A  f
       
              
  ( A  B)  B   A  A   B  A   B  B   A
Rule IV(Quotient Rule)

df dg
g  f
d  f  dx dx
   2
dx  g  g

 
  f  gf  fg
  
g g2
    
  A  g  A  A  g
    
g g2
    
  A  g  A  A  g
     2
 
g g
Second Derivatives
Integration of Fields

 The scalar and vector fields can be integrated over a

region of space.
 These integrals can be over a path defined by a curve
or surface generated by the field or the volume
enclosed in the region of interest.
 Such integrals give cumulative value of the field over a
curve or surface or volume.
 The integration of fields is represented as following
different ways:
Line Integrals Line Integrals: The open line
integral of a field represents its total
value over a given line segment. It
is expressed as:
 
 B  dr   Bx dx   By dy   Bz dz
The closed line integral represents
the value of function over a closed
loop and are expressed as
 
 B  dl
Surface Integrals Surface Integrals: The open surface
integral is cumulative value of field over
.

an open surface and is represented as

 
 B  dS   Bx dS x   B y dS y   Bz dS z
The surface area elements dSx is
parallel to YZ plane. Similar is the case
for other surface area elements.
The closed surface integral is cumulative
value of field over a closed surface and
is represented as
 
 B  dS
Volume Integral Volume Integral: The volume integral is
cumulative value of field over a volume and
is represented as
.
 
 B  dV
V
 Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell was the first person to calculate the speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves which
was same as the speed of light and came to the conclusion that EM waves and visible light are similar.

Maxwell’s equations integral form explain how the electric charges and electric currents produce
magnetic and electric fields. The equations describe how the electric field can create a magnetic field
and vice versa.
Introduction
 The field of electrodynamics involves the study of behavior of charges in

electric field and that of current in the magnetic fields.

 This branch of physics has been pursued over centuries and huge

wealth of experimental data was collected which helped in establishing

facts and laws.

 J C Maxwell visited this experimental information and understood

various laws of electrodynamics within a coherent theoretical framework.

 His efforts led to the condensation of whole knowledge of

electrodynamics into four Maxwell’s Equations.

 These equations, along with Lorentz force law, account for the origin of

electric and magnetic fields and pronounce their effect on charges and
currents.
First Maxwell’s Equation

Maxwell first equation is based on the Gauss law of electrostatic which states that “when a closed
surface integral of electric flux density is always equal to charge enclosed over that surface”
Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law in conjunction with principle of superposition constitutes

the basic framework to deal with problems in electrostatics.
Electric Field due to Discrete Charge Distribution
Electric Field due to Continuous Charge Distribution
Definition of Electric Flux
Gauss’ Theorem from Coulomb’s Law
 The electric flux through any closed surface is expressed as:
 
   E  dS
 Element of area can be expressed in spherical polar coordinates as:

dS  (r 2 sin dd )rˆ
For a closed surface, we have :
 : 0   and  : 0  2 .
Hence total electric flux through closed surface is :
  1  q  2
 E  d S  S 4 0  r 2 rˆ   (r sin dd )rˆ
  q
 E  dS  0
Gauss' Law
Gauss’ law is derivable from
Coulomb’s law as the latter is
inverse square law in nature.
Spherical Polar Coordinates
Gauss’ Theorem for Charge Distributions
• According to the Gauss’ Law, the total electric flux linked with a
closed surface is (1/0) times the net charge enclosed by the closed
surface.
  qi
   E  da   for a bunch of charges
o
• Limitation of Coulomb’s Law Approach: The electric field
determination due to continuous charge distribution becomes difficult
by using conventional definition of electric field.
• Gaussian Approach: The Gauss’ law provides an easy method to
evaluate electric field by exploiting the symmetry of charge
distribution. To determine electric field due to some charge
distribution, an imaginary surface (called Gaussian Surface) is
chosen such that at all point on its surface, the electric field lines are
normal and possess same intensity. The choice of Gaussian surface
simplifies surface integral.
   q 1 Gauss’s law comes out to be an integral
 E  dS   0 0  dV
V
equation but by applying divergence theorem,
we can turn it into a differential one.

Using Gauss’ divergence theorem, we get:

  1
   EdV  0  dV
V
Maxwell’s
First
   Equation
E 
0
Gauss’s law in Differential form
• This time independent differential equation is Maxwell’s first equation, which forms
the basis of all phenomena in electrostatics.
• The Gauss’ law was preferred over Coulomb’s law of electrostatics for forming the
basis of electrostatics by Maxwell.
• This equation implies that source of electric field is charge density and can be
estimated through spatial variation of electric field.
Curl of Electric Field
For a point charge at the origin

𝜌
The equations 𝛻 ∙ 𝐸 = and 𝛻 × 𝐸=0 define
𝜀0

the electric field revealing its two features

that its source is charge density and its
 
  E  0 nature is irrotational.
Second Maxwell’s Equation
Maxwell second equation is based on Gauss law on magnetostatics.

Gauss law on magnetostatics states that “closed surface integral of magnetic flux density is always equal
to total scalar magnetic flux enclosed within that surface of any shape or size lying in any medium.”
Magnetic Field: Biot-Savart’s Law
Divergence of Magnetic Field
 Maxwell’s 2nd Equation : Qualitative Basis
 Every magnet comprises of a north and a south pole.

 If the magnet is divided into two pieces, it results in formation of two new

magnets, each having its own north and south poles.

 This process of disintegration of a magnet may be carried out to any extent

but every two poles of any magnet are inseparable from each other and
they always coexist.

 If the magnetic field produced due to a magnet is viewed, then following

features are observed:

o outside the magnet, the field lines emerge out from the N-pole and

enter into S- pole.

o inside the magnet, the field lines traverse from south to north pole.

o Intensity of magnetic field at a point is related to crowding of field lines

in the vicinity of that point.

 If such a magnet is enclosed in a closed surface, the total outward flux

will be equal to the flux penetrating into the surface thereby resulting in
overall zero magnetic flux.

 The situation remains same even when many magnets are enclosed by
a common surface.

 Hence it can be concluded with a generality that if we have a distribution

of magnets enclosed within a volume, then total magnetic flux through

the enclosing surface always vanishes.

 
 B  dS  0 Maxwell’s
  Second
  BdV  0 Equation
 
 B  0
 Third Maxwell’s Equation

Statement:Time-varying magnetic field will always produce an electric field.

Maxwell’s 3rd equation is derived from Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction. It states that
“Whenever there are n-turns of conducting coil in a closed path which is placed in a time-varying
magnetic field, an alternating electromotive force gets induced in each and every coil.” This is given by
Lenz’s law. Which states that ”An induced electromotive force always opposes the time-varying magnetic
flux.”
Faraday’s Experiments
 Michael Faraday in 1831 performed a series of experiments to relate

time variation in the magnetic flux through a circuit with the emf
developed across its ends.

 From the observations of these experiments, following laws were

enunciated:

 First Law: Whenever there is variation of magnetic flux through

a loop or circuit, an emf is induced in the circuit.

 Second Law: The magnitude of emf is directly proportional to

time rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit.

Mathematically it is given as:

d
e
dt
 The Faraday’s law states that time variation of magnetic flux through a

circuit induces an emf in the circuit. This can be expressed as:

• It is time dependent equation.
d d  
e    B  dS • This indicates that time
dt dt
  variation in magnetic field in
d  
e   E  dl    B  dS space yields electric field
dt
  d   varying in space.
 curlE  dS   dt  B  dS • This equation gives much
desired transformation of

 dB magnetic field to electric field.

curlE  
dt
Maxwell’s 3rd Eq.

Extended Maxwell’s third equation or Maxwell’s third equation for the

static magnetic field.
It states that Static electric field vector is an irrotational vector.
Static field implies the time-varying magnetic field is zero.
Fourth Maxwell’s Equation
Based on Ampere’s circuit law
Curl of Magnetic Field
Ampere Circuital Rule
  Maxwell’s
   dE  Fourth
  B   0  J   0  Equation
 dt 

Ampere-Maxwell’s law indicates that the time variation of electric field is also a
source of magnetic field. In absence of any current flow, this law brings
symmetrical transformation of electric and magnetic fields into each other.
Propagation of EM Waves
Overview of Presentation
 Propagation of EM Waves in Dielectric Medium and
Free space.

 Propagation of EM Waves in Conducting Medium.

 Energetics of EM Waves.

 EM Wave Theory and Laws of Optics.

Propagation of EM Waves in Vacuum
Maxwell Equations in Perfect Dielectric Medium
 A perfect dielectric medium is characterized by

 Finite value of  and .

 Vanishing conductivity i.e. σ = 0.
 No free charge so  = 0.
 No flow of charges i.e. J=0.

 The Maxwell’s equations in the perfect dielectric medium are:

     
  D    E  0  E  0 (1)
     
  B  .H  0  H  0 (2)
 
  B H
 E     (3)
t t
 
  D E
 H   ( 4)
t t
 The wave equations for electric and magnetic waves are identical in

that both electric and magnetic field vectors oscillate with same
frequency and phase of oscillation.

 The electric and magnetic waves are inseparable from each other

and propagate together in space as EM wave.

 The time variation of magnetic field generates electric field

varying in space in accordance with Faraday’s law of EM
induction.

 Similarly the time varying electric field produces space

varying magnetic field.

These two waves generate each other leading to propagation of electromagnetic waves.
Relation of E and H Fields in EM Waves
 When the EM waves propagate in free space or perfect

dielectric medium, then its electric and magnetic field vectors

oscillate in same phase while their directions of oscillations
are mutually perpendicular to each other and also
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the EM wave.

 The relation between time variation of magnetic field and

space variation of the electric field is given as:

 The ratio of electric field vector (Ey) to the magnetic field vector (Hz) is called

impedance (Z) offered by the medium.

 When EM waves propagate in free space or air, the electric field

vector is about 377 times more intense than magnetic field vector.
 In wave theory of light, only electric vector oscillations are
considered due to this reason.
 Even our retina of our eye is more sensitive to electric vector
oscillations than those of magnetic field.

 Transverse nature of light can be expressed as:

 Electromagnetic Wave

An EM wave is constituted by electric field vector oscillating in all possible

directions in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.

76
Propagation of EM Waves in Conducting Medium
EM Waves in Matter
Inside matter, but in regions where there is no free charge or free
current, Maxwell’s equations become
EM Waves in Conducting Medium
 The conducting medium is normally characterized by   0,  .0
 The current density in a conductor medium is given by microscopic form of
 
Ohm’s law as J  E
 The differential equation for propagation of electric wave in a conducting

medium can be obtained as:

 
  B H
 E    
t t

    H   
    E    (  )   (  H )
t t
 
   D   E
  2 E   (J  )   (E   )
t t t t
 
 E 2E
 E  
2
  0 (22)
t t 2
 Similar equation for magnetic field is:
 
 H  H
2
 H  
2
  2  0 (23)
t t
 If we assume that wave is propagating in the x-direction and electric and
magnetic field vector oscillations are along y- and z-directions respectively,
then
E y  0, Ex  Ez  0 H z  0, H x  H y  0 (24)
 Using these conditions (24), equations (22, 23) take the form as:
2Ey 2Ey E y
    0 (25)
x 2
t 2
t
2H z 2H z H z
    0 (26)
x 2
t 2
t
 The equations (25) and (26) define the differential equations for
propagation of plane electric and magnetic waves in the conducting
medium.
 The wave equations are similar to that in perfect dielectric medium but for

the magnetic diffusivity term  E , which arises as a result of finite
t
conductivity of the medium.

 The solution for equation (25) is expressed as:

E y  E0e  ( it  x ) (27 )

 Using this solution in the differential equation (25) we get:


 2  i  2  0  2  i  2    (i  ) (28)

For good conductors we have    
1 2 
  i   (1  1  i )  (1  i )
2

2 2

   (1  i )   (1  i )k (29)
2
  Electric field oscillatio ns are given as
E y  ( E0 e  kx )ei ( kxt ) (30)

The equation (30) is the progressive electric

wave in conducting medium. The amplitude of
the wave decays as it penetrates deep into the
conducting medium due to energy loss caused
by Joule’s heating. This is termed as skin effect.

 The skin depth () is defined as distance traversed by the EM waves, at

which its electric field is attenuated to 1/e of its value at the surface.
For visible light ~ few nm, for
1 2 microwaves ~ few m and for
  (31)
k  radiowaves ~ few mm.

The electric current flows mainly at the "skin" of the conductor, between the outer surface
and a level called the skin depth. Skin depth depends on the frequency of the alternating
current; as frequency increases, current flow moves to the surface, resulting in less skin
depth. Skin effect reduces the effective cross-section of the conductor and thus increases its
effective resistance.
Impedance of Conductor to EM Waves
 The impedance offered by the medium to the propagation of EM waves is

defined as the ratio of instantaneous electric vector to the magnetic vector at

that instant.

 If the plane EM wave is propagating along x-direction with electric vector

oscillations along y-axis and magnetic vector oscillations along z-axis, then
the impedance (Z) is expressed as:
Ey E y H z
Z  
Hz x t
 The oscillating electric and magnetic vectors for EM wave propagation in the

conductor are expressed as:

E y  E0e (it x ) H z  H 0e (it x )

  The impedance of the conductor to propagation of EM waves is given
as:
E y 
x

x
 
E0 e ( it x )  E y

H z 
t

t
 
H 0 e ( it x )  iH z

 E y  iH z
Ey i
Z  
Hz 

Putting   (1  i), we get :
2
2  i  2  1  i    1  i    1 i     
Z           cos  i sin 
 1 i    2    2   2 2   4 4

 i 4 Impedance of Conductor

Z e (33)

When EM waves propagate through a conductor, the electric and magnetic field
oscillations differ by a phase of π/4.
Response of Medium to EM Waves
The ratio of current density to displacement current density is:

J E y   i2
   e (34)
JD E y i 

t

 Displacement current lags conduction current by phase of 90o .

Material  Remarks

Conductor 100 Conduction current dominates
Semiconductor 0.01 to 100 -
Dielectric 0.01 Displacement current dominates
Anomalous Dispersion of EM Waves in a Conductor
 The dispersion of EM waves occurs in a medium when their phase and

group velocities are not equal. The propagating electric waves in the
conductor are represented for the electric field vector oscillations as:
 kx i (t  kx )
E y  E0 e e
 The phase velocity of such a wave is given as:

v     2
k
  2

 
2

 Hence the penetration depth depends upon the wavelength. The phase

velocity of EM waves in the conducting medium and free space can be

expressed as: 1 1
v c
  0 0
    c2
r    
 0 0  r o 0  r v 2
As  r  1 for conductor, thus c2   rv2
 Differentiating w.r.t λ, we get:

dv d dv v d r
2v r  v2 r  0  
d d d 2 r d
 Phase and group velocities are related as:

dv   d r 
vg  v    v 1   (32)
d  2 r d 

As group velocity is greater than phase velocity, so EM waves suffer anomalous

dispersion in the conductors.

When will the medium be conducting
 From H J Pain
Energetics of EM Waves
Work Done (Energy) in the Electric Field
 Total electric potential energy associated with discrete distribution of charges

in space is given as:

1 n
W   qiV (ri )
2 i 1
For continuous volume ch arg e distribution, we have :
1 1  
W  Vdv   0 (  E )Vdv
2 v 2 V
Integration by parts, we get :
1     
W   o E  (V )dv  VE  da 
2 v 
0

1
W   0  E 2 dv (35)
2 v
Work Done (Energy) in the Magnetic Field
 The energy associated with flow of current (I) in the inductor (L) is given as:

1 2
W  LI
2
      
  LI   B  da   (  A)  da   A  dl Stoke’s theorem

1 1
W  ( LI ) I  I
2 2
1   1  
W  I  A  dl   ( A  I )dl 
2 2
  
We know that I dl  Jdadl  Jdv
1  
W   ( A  J )dv
2
U sin g Maxwell fourth equation, we get :
1    1   
W 
20  A  (  B ) dv 
20  (  A)  Bdv

Integration by parts, we get :

1
W   dv
2
B (36)
20
Concept of Poynting Vector
 The cross-product of electric and magnetic field vectors is called Poynting

vector. Mathematically it is expressed as:

  
S  EH (37)
 If we consider an EM wave propagating in x-direction with its electric and

magnetic vectors oscillating along y and z directions respectively, then

Poynting vector is given as:
Sx  Ey H z

S x   E y H z   V . A  VA2  W2 (38)

m m m m

The Poynting vector denotes the time rate of flow of energy per unit area of
the medium through which the EM wave is propagating. It is often called
Intensity or flux of EM wave.
Poynting Vector of EM Waves Propagating in Free Space
 Let’s consider EM waves propagating along x-direction with electric and

magnetic vector oscillations in y- and z-directions respectively.

 
E y  ˆjE0 sin(t  kx ) H z  kˆH 0 sin(t  kx )
  
S  E y  H z  iˆE y H z
Ey 0 0
  Ey  Hz
Hz 0 0
0 2
S H z  c 0 H z2
0
Similarly we can get :
Poynting Vector for
0 2 Plane EM Wave.
S E y  c 0 E y2
0

S  c 0 E  c0 H
2
y
2
z (39)
Average Value of Poynting Vector
 The time average of the Poynting vector is expressed as:
 1
T T
E0 H 0
S av  iˆ 0  ˆ
T 0
(t  kx )dt
2
E y H z dt i sin
T
E H  E  H 
 iˆ 0 0  ˆj  0   kˆ 0 
2  2  2
  
S av  Erm s  H rm s

 The average Poynting vector can also be expressed as:

 1 1
ˆ ˆ
Sav  i c 0 E y  i c0 H z2
2
(40)
2 2

Electric Energy Magnetic Energy

Density of EM Wave Density of EM Wave
Poynting Vector Theorem
 It is restatement of law of conservation of energy for propagating EM waves.

 Let’s consider an elementary surface of area dAthrough which EM waves

are propagating and Sdenote the associated Poynting vector.
 The power through the elementary area is 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑆Ԧ ∙ 𝑑𝐴

 Total power through the closed surface is:

      
P   S  dA   ( E  H )  dA    S dV
          
  S    (E  H )  E  (E  H )  H  (E  H )
     
 ( E  E )  H   H  ( H  E )
     
 ( E  E )  H  E  ( H  H )
       
   S  (  E )  H  E  (  H )
 Using Maxwell’s third
 and fourth equations,
 we get:
  B    D
  S  ( )  H  E  (J  )
t t
 
  B    D 
 S   H  J E  E
t t

 Using product rule of calculus, we can write that:


1    B 
(B  H )  H
2 t t

1    D 
(D  E)  E
2 t t
Ԧ we get:
 Using above identities in expression for 𝛻 ∙ 𝑆,
  1       
S   (D  E  B  H )  J  E
2 t

 we
 Total power transmitted through closed surface is expressed as:
The rate of flow of
electromagnetic energy per The loss of EM energy due to
unit volume enclosed by the Joule’s heating per unit volume
closed surface.

  1      
 S  dA ( 2 t (D  E  B  H )  J  E) dV (41)

Power flux associated with EM waves through the closed surface equals the
time rate of change of electromagnetic energy density (u) through the volume
enclosed by the closed surface and Joule heating per unit volume of the
enclosed medium.
Momentum, Intensity and Radiation Pressure of EM Waves
 Momentum density stored in the field is:
 1  1  1
p  2 S   0 E02 cos2 (kx  t   ) xˆ  p  uem xˆ (42)
c c c
 The time averaged value of momentum is expressed as:
 1
p   0 E02 xˆ (43)
2c
 The intensity of the EM waves is given as:
1
I S  c 0 E02 (44)
2
 The radiation pressure is given as:

F 1 p
P 
A A t
p  p Act A  Area of Im pact

1 I
P  0E 
2
(45)
2 c
 Electromagnetic waves also carry momentum p, with a
corresponding momentum density.
Let’s calculate the momentum carried by electromagnetic waves by
using the well known relativistic formula: E2=p2c2+m2c4.
According to quantum mechanics, the electromagnetic radiation is
made up of massless particles called photons, with
momentum p=E/c for individual photons.

The momentum density for electromagnetic waves must be equal to

the energy density divided by c. Since the energy density for
electromagnetic waves is given by:
  We can further express the above as momentum transferred per
unit time per unit area:

This momentum is a property of the field – it is not associated with the mass of a moving particle in the
usual sense. This momentum is responsible for the phenomenon of radiation pressure. If an electromagnetic
wave with an average value of Poynting vector of Sav is incident on an object, with no reflection and
transmission, the radiation pressure on the object will be given by: ( prad is radiation pressure and dp is
the infinitesimal change in momentum.)
EM Wave Theory & Laws of Optics
Reflection & Transmission of EM Waves : Normal Incidence
 Let an EM wave be incident normally at the boundary of two media of

impedance Z1 and Z2 respectively.

 The incident, reflected and transmitted components of electric vector be

denoted by Ei, Er and Et and that for magnetic field vectors be denoted
by Hi, Hr and Ht respectively.

 When EM waves are incident normally on the interface of two media,

the directions of incidence and reflection are opposite to each other.

 The impedance of two media can be

expressed as:

Ei E
  r  Z1 (46)
Hi Hr
Et
 Z2 (47)
Ht
 At normal incidence, the tangential components of electric and magnetic

field vectors must be continuous at boundary of two media. Hence:

Ei  Er  Et (48) Hi  H r  Ht (49)
 Using equations (46, 47) in equation (49), we get:

Ei Er Et Z
   Ei  Er  1 Et (50)
Z1 Z1 Z 2 Z2
 From (48) and (50), we get:

 Z1  Z 2  Et  Z  Z1  Et
Ei    (51) Er   2  (52)
 Z2  2  Z2  2

 The reflection and transmission coefficients of amplitude are expressed as:

Er  Z 2  Z1 
r    (53)
Ei  Z1  Z 2 
Et  2Z 2 
t     (54)
Ei  Z1  Z 2 
 Case I: EM waves are incident from air to conducting medium, then we

have a situation where Z1>>Z2.

Et Z
t  2 2
Ei Z1 When EM waves are incident on conductor from air, then :
Et E  Incident electric vector just suffers phase reversal on
2 i
Z2 Z1 reflection.
Er  Transmitted magnetic field vector is twice in
r   1
Ei magnitude as compared to the incident one.

 H t  2H i (55) Er   Ei (56)
 Case II: EM waves propagate from conducting medium into air then

Z1<<< Z2.
E 2Z
t t  2 2  Et  2 Ei (57)
Ei Z 2
Er Z 2 When EM waves propagate from conductor to air, then:
r  1  Er  Ei (58)
Ei Z 2  Reflected components of electric and magnetic fields
remain same in magnitude without any phase reversal.
E E
Also r  i  Hr  Hi (59)  Transmitted electric vector is twice in magnitude as
Z1 Z1 compared to incident one.

Et  2 Ei Er  Et H r  Hi
Relation Between Impedance & Refractive Index
 The refractive index of the medium is expressed as:
c 1  
n  .   .  r r
v 0 0 0  0
 r  1 for non  magnetic subs tan ces
n  r (60)
 If Z0 and Z are impedance of free space and medium, then we get:
0  Zo
Z0  Z   r  n (61)
0  Z
 The reflection and transmission coefficients of amplitude are given as:
Z 2  Z1 2 Z1
r t
Z 2  Z1 Z 2  Z1
Let Z 2  Z and Z1  Z 0 then
1 n
r (62)
1 n
2
t (63)
1 n
 The reflection coefficients of energy is given as:

2
 Er   1 n 
2

 R     r 2    (64)
 i
E  1  n 
 The transmission coefficients of energy is given as:

Et H t
T
Ei H i
1 n 
2
4n
T  1 R  1   
1 n  1  n 2
4n
T  (65)
(1  n) 2
 Reflection & Transmission of EM Waves: Oblique Incidence
 Let’s consider two media of refractive indices n1 and n2 having interface at XY

plane defined by z=0.

 Further let’s consider that a monochromatic plane wae is incident at interface

of two media making an angle θi with z-axis (normal to the interface).

 Let the angles made by reflected and transmitted waves with z-axis be θr and

θt respectively.

 The electric and magnetic field oscillations in incident, reflected and

transmitted waves are expressed as:

   i k r t 

Ei (r , t )  E0i e i ;
 
Bi (r , t )  
1  
v1
ki  Ei (66)

   i k r t 

Er (r , t )  E0 r e r ;
 
Br (r , t )  
1 
v1

k r  Er  (67 )

   i k r t 

Et (r , t )  E0t e t ;
 
Bt (r , t ) 
v2

1  
kt  Et  (68)
 The continuity demands that at interface z=0 of two media, we must have:
 i k r t   i k r t   i k r t 

E0i e i  E0 r e r  E0t e t
 This boundary condition must hold at all points on the z=0 plane and at all
points of time. Thus we can write : The important thing to notice is that the x, y, and t
      dependence is confined to the exponents. Because the
ki  r  k r  r  kt  r (69) boundary conditions must hold at all points on the plane,
and for all times, these exponential factors must be equal
at z = 0. The time factors are already equal. As for the
 As all the three waves have same spatial terms, evidently when z = 0
 frequency, it can be written that:

ki v1  kr v1  kt v2   (70)
More explicitly, the condition given by equation (69) can be expressed as:
xkix  ykiy  xkrx  ykry  xktx  ykty (71)

 The equation (71) can hold only if the individual components of propagations

constants are equal. Hence we can have the condition that

kix  k rx  ktx (if y  0)
  (82)
kiy  k ry  kty (if x  0) 
   
 Now if k i lies in the xz plane then kr and kt must also lie in same plane.
It implies that incident, reflected and transmitted wave vectors form a plane (plane of incidence)
which also includes the normal to the surface. This is first law of reflection and refraction.

 From equation (72), we have:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_OYigixrj_8
kix  ki sin i krx  kr sin  r
kix  krx  ki sin i  kr sin  r
As ki  kr then
i   r (73) II nd Law of Re flection

 For the transmitted angle, we have:

 
ki sin  i  kt sin  t  sin  i  sin t
v1 v2
sin  i v1 c / v2 n2
  
sin  t v2 c / v1 n1
sin  i n2
 (74) Snell' s Law of Re fraction
sin  t n1
 The boundary conditions on components of electric and magnetic fields at

the interface of two media having no free charge or current densities are
expressed as: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_FS6csrxBPU
 1 E1   2 E2 
 II  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vlNUGyDzJ90&li
 1
E  E II
2  st=TLPQMzAwNTIwMjF3L6_8nrNzEw&index=2
  
 B1  B2  (75)
  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BMUz8AjYzOc&
 B II 
1 1
B2II 
  list=RDCMUCEmBUvaW0UhAbPz4IiscKgw&index=2
2
1
 1 

 Applying boundary conditions given in equations (76) using the equations

(66-68), we get:

 1 E0i  E0 r z   2 E0t z 
 
 E
 0i  E 
0r x, y   E 
0t x , y 
 
B0i  B0 r z  B0t z  (76)
 
 B  B  
1 1
B0t x , y 

 1
0i 0r x, y
1 

 Let’s consider that the polarization of incident wave is parallel to the plane of

incidence (i.e. XZ plane) and reflected and transmitted waves are also
polarized in the same plane.

 The condition in (76) reduces to the form:

1 ( E0i sin  i  E0 r sin  r )   E0t sin  t (77)

E0i cos i  E0 r cos r  E0t cos t (78)
1
E0i  E0r   1 E0t (79)
1v1  2 v2
cost
Let  (80)
cosi
1v1 1n2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jQ
  (81)
2v2 2 n1 ZiS_A1qcY

 We can write that:

 Case I: At grazing incidence θi=90o, then the coefficient α diverges and equation
In the case of normal incidence (θi = 0), α = 1, and we
(92) takes the form as E0r=E0i.
recover previous equations of Normal incidence.
 Case II: Let’s consider intermediate angle θb where the reflected wave is

completely extinguished.

We can write as:

   
E0 r  0    E0i    
   
2
n 
1   1 sin  b 
cos t 1  sin 2  t  n2 
  
cos b cos b cos b
1n2 n2
 
 2 n1 n1
2
Brewester’s law states that
n 
1   1 sin  b  at angle of incidence equal
n  n2 
 2   tan  b to polarizing angle (θb), the
n1 cos b
tangent of angle of
n2
tan  b  (93) Brewester ' s Law polarization gives relative
n1
refractive index of medium.
Numerical Problems
 Show that in EM waves, electrostatic energy density is equal to magnetic

energy density.

 Show that the energy flux in a plane EM polarized wave propagating in free

space is the product of energy density and velocity of EM waves.

 An EM wave in which rms value of E = 20V/m falls normally on an

absorbing mass of 1mg/cm2 and specific heat 0.1cal/g0C. Assuming that no

heat is lost, calculate the rate at which temperature of absorber rises

(0.24oC/s)
2 
 Show that the skin depth in poor conductor is and hence independent
 
of frequency of EM waves.
  
 If alternating electric field  E 0 cost is applied to a conductor, show that
E
the displacement current is negligible as compared to conduction current at
any frequency lower than the optical frequencies.
 Calculate the skin depth for silver at afrequency of 100GHz. Given that
σ=2x107S/m and μ=4πx107.

 Show that Sav = 1.327 x 10-3Emax Jm2s-1 if given that Emax = 27.45√Sav V/m
and Hmax = 72.85 x 10-3√Sav A/m.

 Calculate the poynting vector at the surface of sun. Given that it radiates
3.8 x 1026W and radius of sun is 0.7Gm. Also evaluate the electric and
magnetic field vector amplitudes. (1340W/m2, 10004V/m, 2.27A/m).

 Show that in a conductor the magnitude of electric vector reduces to about

1% at a distance of 0.73c, where c is the wavelength of EM waves in the
conductor.
 THANKS
FOR
NICE AUDIENCE