CHAPTER ONE

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Studies of bruises is detected on carcasses at the slaughter house, provided the

useful information about the traumatic situation the animals endure or suffer. Risk

factors such as animal characteristics, transport conditions, stocking density, age,

sex and handling of the animals. The causes of bruises is divided in to two aspects

involving the animal itself – animal factor and the environment in which the animal

moves and handled. It is the combination of these two sets of factors that determines

the amount of bruising any animal exhibits following slaughter.

In most world carcass bruises are very common. Bruises lower the meat quality and

produce a great economic loss. In some occasions cattle from auction markets with

several loading and unloading hence are increasing the injury probability.

Consequently, bad handling of animals causes injuries, stress and decreases meat

quality.

Bruises can occur at any point of the primary production chain due to inappropriate

handling of the animal on the farm or at livestock markets during loading through

road transport and unloading at the slaughterhouse as well as during stunning

procedures. Although bruises are inflicted at ante-mortem in cattle, they are not

visible in live animals due to the thickness of bovine skin and can only be detected at

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post-mortem in the carcass. Bruising in cattle is not only an indication of poor

welfare. It also causes substantial economic losses for human consumption and

must be trimmed off. A carcass that is extensively bruised will be down graded or

condemned, because it is less acceptable to consumers. A bruised carcass

decomposes rapidly since bloody meat is an ideal medium for bacterial growth and

having a shorter shelf-life.

Bruises on carcasses reflect poor cattle handling practices. Tissue that is deeply

bruised must be trimmed and bruised primal are devalued at processing. Bruising is

also indicative of animal welfare issues.

In the 1999 Beef Quality Audit, the number and severity of bruises were reduced

from 1995 audit suggesting improvements in cattle handling and transport. However,

bruises were still found on 54% of the carcass, showing that additional changes are

needed.

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1.2 AIM

The aim of this project is to investigate the effects of bruises on commercial cuts.

1.3 OBJECTIVES

1. To investigate causes and occurrence of carcass bruising,

2. To highlight effects of carcass bruising

3. To highlight prevention of carcass bruising.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

A bruise is defined as the rapture of blood vessels resulting in the escape of red

blood cells into tissue. There has to be sufficient tissue damage to result in blood

released than can be rapidly removed the area by lymphatic drainage (Shaw, 1973).

2.2 Causes of carcass bruising

2.2.1 Factors affecting the Occurrence of Bruises

Many factors have to be considered when attempting to determine the causes of

bruises in beef cattle. Following information is restricted to the characteristics of the

animal itself, transport conditions way of handling and methods of animal selling.

2.3 Animal Factors

2.3.1 Presence of Horns

Horns is the major causes of carcass bruising in beef cattle, (Meishke, 1995) found

that the mean bruised tissue trimmed from carcass weighted 1.59kg for horned as

compared to 0.77kg for hornless cattle. However, horns do causes heavy financial

damage to bruising. Hide damage and other injuries particularly in yards feedlots and

during feedlots and during transport. In addition the economic losses through

bruising estimated to be close to $920 000.00 per year, using current value. Horns
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also pose injury risk to cattle handlers and cause handling difficulties in crushes and

during transport.

2.3.2 Temperament

The temperament of cattle seems to have an effect on the amount of bruising.

Temperament can be an effect on bruising in the following ways; a bad temperament

can create havoc in its group and especially under unconfined conditions which will

stimulate confrontation between other individual groups. Overcrowding increases

aggressive behaviour and so could increase bruising.

2.3.3 Cattle behaviour

Many animals are injured or even die during transportation. Also many carcasses

destined for slaughter are bruised and this represents a huge loss to the livestock

industries due to beef losses from bruising and losses through death and serious

injury of railed cattle are very costly losses giving an estimate loss of $42 million due

to severe carcass bruising, (Eldridge, 1988).

Animals are usually handled intensively before transport. They are grouped together

often in unfamiliar groups ready for loading into the truck. It has been shown that

mixing of strange animals will cause restlessness and agonistic encounters leading

to bruising (Pearson and Kilgour 1990). Mixing of unfamiliar animals at any stage

results in an increase in agonistic behaviour hence poor meat quality.

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When the animals were forced to move they frequently bumped into objects such as

broken fences and gates which according (Blackshow, 1991) causes bruising metal

chutes worn through by cattle can have sharp edges which will bruise shoulders.

Edges with small diameter are more likely to bruise than striking round four inch

pipe.

2.3.4 Transport

Distance, time and transport condition. Road transport can be associated with

several types of injuries. The level of bruising might increase with the distance

travelled by animals and consequently the amount of bruised tissue trimmed per

carcass. The condition under the transport takes place is more important than the

total journey time or the distance covered, (Minka and Ayo, 2007).

After animal has adopted to the situation time is a minor problem compared to the

loading densities, vehicle design, road condition and the driver’s behaviour all these

contribute to carcass bruising. Cattle began to lie down after sixteen hours of

travelling. Although cattle prefer to stand during transportation, they do lie down

during long distances thus preventing animal from resting after sixteen hours or

more. Transport may become an important animal welfare issue in Zimbabwe.

Studies of the relationship between vehicle design transit conditions, climatic,

transport time and distance are required to get better insight about their effect on

bruising occurrence, (Whythes, 1981).

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2.3.5 Age and sex

The effect of age on bruising was investigated by (Whythes 1991). They found that

bruising was greatest in the mature and old cows and oldest steers of the group.

These results support the earlier findings of (Anderson J, 1973), that older animals

have more bruising due to advanced age.

According to (Jarvis, 1980) quantified the effect of sex class on the occurrence of the

carcass bruising of cattle at two commercial slaughterhouses in the United Kingdom.

Bruise scores were calculated by multiplying the number of bruises in each size

class (little, slight, medium or heavy) by weighing factor and adding these values.

Little bruises 2cm were not considered. The bruise scores were then divided by the

number of animals per group resulting in a mean bruise score per animal. The

researchers found that when heifers were completely separated from steers during

transport and handling the mean number of bruises per animal differed significantly

between sex classes. Heifers had significantly more bruises than steers. If kept as

separate groups, cows bruise significantly more than steers and bulls.

Furthermore, only in cows did the amount of bruising expressed as weight of bruised

tissue trimmed increase with increased duration of journey. One of the reasons cows

have more bruises is due to lack of fat cover. Thus animals without fat bruise more

easily than animals with fat. Another major contributor to the increased levels of cow

bruising compared to steers and heifers is increased handling on the way to the

market. Steers and heifers from feedlot to the plant, whereas cows and bulls usually

pass through an action market.

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2.3.6 Breed

(Minka and Ayo, 2007), Suggested that some differences in the occurrence of

bruises can be attributed to breed. In studies carried out the behavioural activities of

cattle during loading and unloading were assessed in three different breeds. Bos

Indicus breeds, white Fulani long horns, Sokoto Gudale Short horns and Red Bororo

massive horns). The research found that animals Red Bororo breed had the highest

score of behavioural activities and concluded that this may be related to the fact that

Red Bororo animals have massive horns and are aggressive by nature. It appears

that breed differences can be an attribute to differences in behaviour and to being

horned or hornless.

The finding agrees with the suggestion of (Tordyce, 1999), that the difference

between individual animals in susceptibility to bruising and temperament might be

more important than the viability between breeds.

2.3.7 Stocking density

It has been speculated that the extent of bruising increases with increased stocking

density during transport. Cattle transported at high density have limited room to

move and adopt preferred orientations such as to align themselves with the direction

of the travel, which may increase their security of balance. An interesting observation

of high loading density was the (domino effect), whereby a fallen animal caused

others to lose their footing. Trampling on the floored animal destabilised other

members of the group and this resulted in more animals going down. It is likely that

occurrence of the domino effect, is related to the driving style because the majority of

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incidents in which cattle adjust their positions stumble or fall are associated with

sudden changes such as braking, gear changes or cornering (Knowles, 1999).

Not only overloading but also under loading of truck increases bruising (Eldridge and

Winnfield, 1999), found that carcass bruising is high in both the high and low

stocking density treatments compared with medium treatment.

The contradiction between the findings of (Tarrant, 1990), in relation to adverse low

stocking densities may be explained by the differences in average live weight of the

animals (603 and 400kg) respectively used in the experimental. In any way it is clear

that at low stocking densities lose animals try to keep their balance in a moving truck

and are more likely to hit the vehicles.

2.3.8 Effects of carcass bruising

Although the presence of bruises at slaughter is apparent to the eye. Knowledge of

the exact time of implication is necessary if steps are to be taken to prevent bruising.

At slaughter a bruise maybe aged approximately by the following appearances.

0 – 10 hours : red and haemorrhagic

Apprx 24 hours : dark coloured

24 – 38 hours : watery consistency

73 days : rusty orange colour and soapy to the touch

(meat grading handout, 2010)

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2.3.9 Bruising Code Symbols

Extensively bruised carcasses in Zimbabwe are down-graded and this could present

and severe loss. In Zimbabwe carcasses are down-graded on the basis of location

and severity of the bruising. The Meat Grader, shall estimate the trimmed meat

weight and record the following bruising code symbols.

CODE 1: this code is shown on one side to indicate that the side is not bruised.

CODE 2: where this code appears on both sides it indicates that bruising is less than

two percent of the carcass weight.

CODE 3: this code indicates that both sides were trimmed by more than two percent

of the carcass weight.

CODE 4: this code denotes trimming caused by abscesses, inflected wounds and

injection scars. Statutory Instrument 182 of 2000, Agricultural Products Marketing

(Livestock) (Carcass and Grading) Regulations, 2000.

Bruises must be removed by trimming either hot or the carcass has been broken up.

Bruises and blood clots are defects hence meat passed for human consumption

must be inspected for such defects in the following procedure.

1. Entire carcasses shall be condemned when a bruise or haemorrhage is

associated with systematic disturbance.

2. When condition is localised the carcass may be passed for food after removal

and condemnation of affected parts.

3. When blood clumps extend into muscles affected parts shall be removed.

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 4. Trimming is not required when blood clumps are not present.

5. Scar tissues and healed lesions are considered wholesome. However,

excessive scar tissue is objectionable to consumers and should be removed

and condemned. Statutory Instrument 50 of 1995, Meat Hygiene.

2.3.10 Hides and skin damage

Hides and skins have the highest value of any product of slaughter animals. Useful

leather can be made from undamaged and properly treated skin. Excessive injuries

damage the skin and hides. This will cost the industry much loss. Hides and skins of

slaughter animals can be damaged by thoughtless handling and treatment of those

animals in the following ways whips, sticks, barbed wire and horns. Badly designed

and constructed transport vehicles. Hitting or forcefully throwing the animals.

2.3.11 Dark cutters

Dark cutters (dark red meat) occur mainly when animals are injured just prior to

slaughter resulting in excessive carcass bruising. This dark meat has no difference in

taste than other cherry red coloured meat. It has a shorter shelf life and is usually

ground for hamburger. On carcass grading, carcasses with dark cutters are

downgraded. Consumers will not purchase dark red meat simply because of the

colour.

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2.3.12 Meat quality

Carcass bruising reduces the quality of the meat. This is caused by the greenish

colour. If it is not properly trimmed then the greenish colour might remain therefore

consumers may regard it as poor meat quality.

Trimming of carcass bruising cause a lot of loss to the producer since it reduces the

weight of carcass. The average weight of trims per carcass is 3-5kgs. The reduction

in weight means the reduction in price.

Trimming of bruises results in the carcass being downgraded for example from

commercial to economy, this reduces the initial cost of the carcass. The producer

might fail to recover the cost incurred either in buying such cattle or cost of handling

such cattle.

Excessive carcass bruising causes total condemnation of the carcass. The producer

will get nothing from a condemned carcass. The expenses he incurred will not be

covered. The producer may lose potential customers due to carcass bruising. If the

customers see the grey green colour , they will tell their friends and relatives about

the condition therefore the potential customers will not come to buy the meat.

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2.4 Prevention of carcass bruising

2.4.1 Handling methods

Quite handling by well trained people is essential. Handlers should be trained to use

behavioural principles of handling such as flags, plastics, puddles or panels should

be used as primary driving aids. Frequent use of electric prods, gods and whips

should be avoided because they cause bruises.

2.5 Transportation of cattle guidelines

2.5.1 Loading and unloading equipment

Non-slip flooring is essential on loading ramps and on alley floors. In new facilities

concrete must be grooved in, 20cm diamond or square pattern with 3cm deep V

grooves. Slick areas in existing facilities can be roughed with a concrete grooving

machine or a metal grate constructed. From 2cm to 3cm diameter steel rods can be

constructed for use in high traffic areas. Other methods for making a floor non-slip

are covering with sand or installing rubber mats. Note that, sand block drainage

systems, (Animal Welfare Module, 2010).

Excessive steep ramp should be avoided. The recommended slope for ramp is 20

degrees. Either stair steps or cleats can be used. On concrete ramps, stairs steps

that have 10cm rise and a minimum tread length of 30cm are recommended.

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Fences, gates and other equipments, must be free of sharp edges or broken

equipment that can bruise cattle or damage the hides. Gates should be equipped

with tie backs to prevent cattle from becoming wedged between the end of the gate

and a fence. Contrary to popular belief cattle can be bruised after stunning. This is

why it is so important to have well maintained equipment, (Animal Welfare Module,

2010).

2.5.2 Tips for handling cattle to avoid bruises

• Keep cattle calm – calm animals are easier to move and load this will prevent

bruising. When cattle become agitated it takes up to 30 minutes for them to

calm down.

• Move cattle at walk or trot – injuries from pulls and bruising increases when

cattle run into gates and fences.

• Reduce noise – cattle have very sensitive ears and yelling and whip crackling

stresses them. Handlers should not yell or constantly whistle.

• Driving methods – careful driving will help prevent bruises and injuries. It will

also help reduce weight losses. Rapid acceleration or sudden braking should

be avoided because of poor driving can cause animals to lose their balance.

• Checking the load – drivers should check the cattle to make sure no animals

have fallen down every time they stop at a weigh station or truck. Downed

cattle are likely to be trampled and injured and cause excessive bruises.

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• Driver incentives – implementation of financial incentives to reduce bruises

and weight loss should be used to motivate drivers. Drivers who are

financially rewarded will be more willing to handle cattle quietly and to drive

carefully.

• Prompt unloading – trucks should be scheduled so that they can be unloaded

promptly when they reach the destination. Trucks should be unloaded within

15 minutes after arrival. Non-slip flooring cattle ride easier on non-slip flooring.

One sign of a sick trailer is more manure on the floor. Slipping agitates cattle

and cause more bruises. Slipping can be reduced by welding small bars or

aluminium mesh on the floor.

• Temperament – avoid mixing strange animals to prevent fighting. Cull wild

temperament breeding animals, this can be inherited. Avoid overcrowding as

this increase aggressive behaviour and so could increase bruising. Dehorn

calves prior to weaning or use polled bulls for breeding. Castrate bulls

properly to avoid stags. Consider the use of electrolytes prior to slaughter or

while on hold at the plant if dark cutters persist.

• Stocking densities – truck and stock trailer could be loaded of trucks will

increase the chances of an animal going down on a truck Bruising is also

increased when trucks are over loaded..

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2.5.3 Recommended Truck Loading Densities

Table 2.1

Feedlot fed steers or cows, horned or tipped or more than 10%

Average weight Horned and tipped Polled

360kg 1.01sq.m 0.97sq.m

454kg 1.20sq.m 1.11sq.m

545kg 1.42sq.m 1.35sq.m

635kg 1.76sq.m 1.67sq.m

(Animal Welfare Module, 2010)

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Study site

This study is going to be carried out in Mashonaland West Province of Zimbabwe in

Kadoma District. Tauya Abattoir will be used to carry out the study. This abattoir is

situated in Kadoma industrial area about seven kilometres south east of Kadoma

CBD. Causes of bruising on bovine carcasses will be defected at the above

mentioned abattoir.

3.2 Data Collection

The researcher is going to use direct observation for data collection, by observing

how cattle are presented for slaughter at Tauya Abattoir obtain bruises. The

researcher is going to observe which methods of cattle transportation from farms to

abattoir causes more bruising. Farmers use different methods of transporting their

animals, others uses trucks, while others drove their animals by foot. Apart from that

the researcher is going to observe which age group and sex group are more prone to

bruises. Effects and prevention of carcass bruising are also going to be highlighted.

The researcher is going to compare the sex group that are more prone to bruises.

In this particular task a computer application will be used to plot graphs, therefore the

researcher has chose to use Excel. This will enable presentation of results obtained

from observations made. Stationary such as writing pads and pencils will be used for

data collection.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Results and Analysis

Causes of carcass bruising

Transport

Most farmers use trucks with cages to transport their animals. Although some of the

trucks are not ideal for animal transportation, some of the trucks have slippery floors

and the cages have sharp corners. Others drove their animals by foot while on the

way the driver will be using rods and whips to drive their animals, as a result most

animals will be having bruises when they are presented for slaughter.

Figure 4.1

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Figure 4.1 shows that animals transported using trucks are more bruised than those

that are driven by foot. Most farmers who transport their animals using trucks do not

use cages. They tie the animals with ropes and make them lay on the truck floor,

resulting in excessive bruising on the side which the animal was laying on. Those

who make use of the cages uses very small cages hence most animals are

presented with bruises on loin and rib area. However, farmers who drove animals by

foot, their animals present less percentage of bruising as compared to the animals

driven by a truck with conditions mentioned above. The few that presents bruising

are due to use of rods and whips while driving the animals.

4.2 Effects of age on carcass bruising

Figure 4.2

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Figure 4.2 shows that mature animals bruise more than young animals. It was

observed that bruising is greatest in the mature animals, old cows and oldest steers.

When animals are transported during acceleration and sudden braking, old animals

easily fall down due to advanced age. As a result more bruises will occur. Young

animals are very strong they can not fall down easily, resulting in less bruising. The

few that has bruises is due to truck gates and sharp edges of the cage that bruises

the cattle.

4.3 Effects of sex on bruises

Figure 4.3

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Observation on the slaughter floor shows that cows bruise more as compared to

steers, while bulls get less bruises as compared to steers and cows. Major

contributor to the increased levels of cows bruising compared to steers and bulls,

cows have soft skin which can be easily bruised.

4.4 Effects of bruises on carcass quality

Bruises cause economic loss to the farmer. A bruised carcass has to be trimmed off.

If the bruises occur on the commercial cuts, for example the rump or the loin, it

means these can not be displayed and sold as cuts. Trimming of bruises results in

carcass being downgraded for example from commercial to economy. This reduce

the initial cost of the carcass. The producer might fail to recover the costs incurred

either in buying such cattle or cost of handling such cattle.

A bruised carcass will also produce poor quality meat because of poor shelf life, and

the meat is not very pleasant to look at, so consumers usually reject buying the

meat. Bruises also causes dark cutters, this dark meat has no difference in test than

other cherry red coloured meat. It has a short shelf life and is usually ground for

hamburger, therefore humburgers are very expensive to consumers. Consumers will

not purchase dark red meat simply because of the colour.

Observation on the slaughter floor shows that cows bruise more easily than steers

while bulls are hard to bruise. Carcasses from cows have more bruises than steers

and bulls therefore while the producer is unable to change the sex of the animal.

Extra care must be taken with cows and mixing of different sex must be discouraged.

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4.5 Meat shelf life

Bruising spoil and decreases meat shelf life. It is necessary for animals to be free

from injury and stress prior to slaughter so as unnecessarily deplete muscle

glycogen reverses.

Injuries will not allow muscle glycogen to be replaced by the body as much as

possible. It is important that the glycogen levels in the muscles of the slaughtered

carcass are as high as possible to develop the maximum level of lactic acid in the

meat. This acid gives meat an ideal pH level, measured after 24 hours after

slaughter of 6.2 or lower. The 24 hours (or ultimate) pH higher than 6.2 indicates that

the animal was or diseased prior to slaughter.

Lactic acid in the muscle has the effect of retarding the growth of bacteria that have

contaminated the carcass during slaughter and dressing. These bacteria cause

spoilage of meat during storage particularly in warmer environments and the meat

develops off-smells colour changes, rancidity and slime. This spoilage and these

processes decrease shelf life of meat thus causing wastage of valuable food.

If the contaminating bacteria are those of the food poisoning type, the consumers of

the meat become sick, resulting in costly treatment and loss of manpower hours to

the national economies. Thus meat from animals which has suffered from injuries will

not be sold to consumers. This is perhaps the biggest cause for meat wastage

during the production processes.

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4.6 Losses due to carcass bruising

Meat that is bruised is wasted as it is not suitable for use as food;

• It is not acceptable to the consumer

• It cannot be used for processing or manufactures

• It decomposes and spoils rapidly as blood meat is an ideal medium for growth

of contaminating bacteria,

• It must be for the above reasons, to be condemned at meat inspection.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Conclusion

The key findings of this research provides clear evidence of a number of external

causes of bruises that are sustained during the last hours and days before the

animals are slaughtered. Animal factors such as temperament, presence of horns,

sex and age contribute to the development of bruises. It is clear that animals

transported by trucks suffer more bruising that could be avoided by the use of ideal

trucks recommended to transport animals. Preventing or minimising carcass bruising

by setting standard measures on how to drove animals will help in maintaining good

carcass quality.

5.2 Recommendations

The researcher recommend that farmers are encouraged to use trucks that are ideal

for animal transportation. Trucks with slippery floors and cages with sharp edges and

corners are discouraged. Farmers must use trucks with cages to transport their

animals. Those that drive their animals by foot must avoid the use of rods and whips.

Handlers should be trained to use behavioural principles of handling such as flags,

plastics, puddles or panels should be used as primary driving aids. Mixing of

unfamiliar animals at any stage should be avoided. Since cows bruise more than

steers and bulls, extra care must taken with cows. Farmers must cull wild

temperament breeding animals, since this can be inherited. It is also recommended

that dehorning must be practised to all horned calves.

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5.3 References

1. Anderson J, (1973) Bruising in cattle transported over long distances,

Veterinary Record.

2. Animal Welfare Module (2010)

3. Blackshaw, (1991) Handling methods and facilities to reduce stress on cattle,

Veterinary Clinics of North America - Food Animal Practise.

4. Eldridge and Winfield, (1999) The behaviour and bruising of cattle during

transport at different space allowances, Australian Journal of Experimental

Agriculture.

5. Eldridge G. A, (1988) The behaviour and bruising of cattle during transport at

different spare allowances, Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture.

6. Jarvis A. M, (1995) The influence of source sex class and pre-slaughter

handling on the bruising of cattle at two slaughter houses, Livestock Production

Science

7. Meishkee, (1999) The effects of horns on bruising in cattle, Australian

Veterinary Journal .

8. Minka and Ayo, (2007) Effects of loading behaviour and road transport stress

on traumatic injuries in cattle transported by road during the hot – dry seasons,

Livestock Science

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9. Pearson and Kilgour, (1990) The application of Histochemical methods to the

edge evaluation of skin wounds, Experimental Study, American Journal of

Forensic Medicine and Pathology.

10. Statutory Instrument 182 of 2000, Agricultural Products Marketing (Livestock)

(Carcass Classification and Grading) Regulations, 2000

11. Statutory Instrument 50 of 1995, Meat Hygiene

12. Tordyce, (1999) The behaviour of young Friesian bulls during social re-group at

an abattoir. Influence of an overhead electrified wire grid, Applied Animal

Behaviour Science.

13. Whythes, (1991) Effect of Transporting Cows various distances on live weight

carcass traits and muscle pH, Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and

Animal Husbandry.

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