POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT (Liberal Approach)

- Akom Bomnuk Don

MEANING
Political Development refers to the process through which political systems
evolve and transform over time, aiming to enhance the capacity of
governments to meet the needs and aspirations of their societies. It
encompasses the growth of political institutions, the establishment of
democratic governance, the rule of law, accountability, transparency, and the
protection of human rights. It implies systematic change, the alterations of a
relatively fundamental nature in the functioning of the political system. Political
development is crucial for achieving stability, promoting social justice, and
fostering economic growth.
The original foundation of the concept of development was economic. The
term political development entered the lexicon of political science in the fifties
after the second world war, when the newly independent states of Asia and
Africa began formulating development plans for socio economic well-being of
their people.
Political Development is traditionally defined as moving towards a more
liberal democratic system based on free and fair elections, and the protection
of citizens’ civil rights. The path to such development is often hard to define
because each state has its own history, and therefore, its own methods for
moving towards this goal. Many western scholars recommend that states
establish institutions to promote democracy, hold elections, and adopt a
multiparty system. However, the success of a states attempt at implementing
these recommendations varies from one state to another.
Political development enhances the state's capacity to mobilise and allocate
resources, to process policy inputs into implementable outputs. This assists
with problem‐solving and adaptation to environmental changes and goal
realization. It is only possible for a well-governed country to develop more
quickly and better protect the interests of its people. As a result, a successful
and strong state that ultimately promotes development relies on political
development and evolution.
In 1965, Lucian W. Pye compiled a fairly comprehensive listing of ten
meanings that had been attributed to the concept of political development:
• The political prerequisite of economic development
• The politics typical of industrial societies
• Political modernization
• The operation of a nation state
• Administrative and legal development
• Mass mobilization and participation
• The building of democracy
• Stability and orderly change
• Mobilization and power
• One aspect of a multidimensional process of social change

In a noble effort at synthesis, Pye attempted to summarize the most

prevalent common themes on political development as involving movement
toward increasing equality among individuals in relation to the political system;
increasing capacity of the political system in relation to its environments; and
increasing differentiation of institutions and structures within the political
system. These three dimensions, he argued, are to be found lying at the heart
of the development process.

DEFINITIONS
Almond and Powell defines it as, “the increased differentiation and
specialisation of political structures and the increased secularisation of political
culture”.
Samuel P. Huntington also defined it as, “the process by which
organisations and procedures acquire values and stability”.
According to Alfred Diamont, “political development is a process which
aims at a particular condition, but one which creates an institutional framework
for solving an ever-widening range of social problems”.

FACTORS / DETERMINANTS OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

Political development occurs in a society due to numerous factors which are
favourable for it, interacting in complex ways to create unique pathways of
progress and change. Understanding these determinants is crucial for
analyzing the challenges and opportunities faced by societies striving for
political advancement.
According to Almond and Powell, the events which lead to political
development come from the international environment, from the domestic
society or from political elites within the political system itself. International
events like wars and aggressions may bring out changes and development in a
political system. Events which occur within the society itself may necessitate
certain change and development. The internal factors are as such :

1. Historical Factors:
• Colonial Legacy: A nation's colonial past, including the nature of
colonial rule, the duration of colonization, and the process of
decolonization, significantly impacts its post-colonial political
development.
• Historical Experiences with Conflict: Experiences with war, civil
conflict, or political violence can shape a nation's political culture,
institutions, and approach to governance.
• Political Traditions: Pre-colonial political structures, traditional forms
of governance, and indigenous knowledge systems can influence
contemporary political development.

2. Social and Cultural factors :

• Social Structure and Class Divisions: The presence of rigid social
hierarchies, class divisions, or caste systems can hinder political
participation and create obstacles to democratic development.
• Cultural Values and Beliefs: Cultural norms, religious beliefs, and
social values influence attitudes towards authority, individual rights,
and the role of government in society.
• Ethnic and Religious Diversity: Ethnic and religious diversity can both
contribute to and challenge political development. While diversity can
enrich a society, it can also lead to conflict and instability if not
managed effectively.

3. Economic Factors:
 • Level of Economic Development: Economic prosperity provides
resources for investment in education, healthcare, infrastructure, and
social programs, which can contribute to political stability and
development.
• Economic Structure and Distribution of Wealth: The distribution of
wealth and resources, as well as the type of economic system (e.g.,
capitalist, socialist), can influence power dynamics, social inequalities,
and the nature of political participation.
• Economic Growth and Stability: Sustained economic growth can create
opportunities for social mobility and political participation, while
economic instability can lead to social unrest and political instability.

4. Political Factors:
• Strength of Institutions: Effective, accountable, and transparent
institutions are crucial for ensuring the rule of law, protecting
individual rights, and promoting good governance.
• Level of Political Participation: High levels of citizen participation in
elections, civil society organizations, and political processes
contribute to a more responsive and democratic government.
• Leadership and Political Culture: The quality of leadership, political
culture, and the presence of visionary leaders can significantly impact
the direction and pace of political development.

5. External Factors:
• Globalization: Global economic integration, cultural exchange, and the
spread of information technology can both promote and challenge
political development, depending on how countries manage these
processes.
• International Relations: Relationships with other countries, including
alliances, trade partnerships, and regional organizations, can influence
a nation's political trajectory and development choices.
• Foreign Aid and Intervention: Foreign aid and intervention can provide
resources and support for development but can also create
dependency or undermine local ownership of the development
process.

Understanding these determinants provides a framework for analyzing the

complex dynamics of political development. By recognizing the interplay of
these factors, policymakers, scholars, and citizens can work towards fostering
sustainable progress and building more just and equitable societies.

CHARACTERISTICS OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

COLEMAN AND LUCIAN PYE

James S. Coleman and Lucian Pye conceived of political development as
political modernization. In their view a modern political system is more efficient
than a traditional political system in the same way as the modern industrial
system is more efficient than traditional non-mechanized agriculture. The
traditional political system was primarily concerned with the collection of taxes,
law and order and defence but modern political system also plays an active
role in improving the quality of life of its citizens apart from performing its
traditional functions. Under the traditional political system, people were not
involved in politics; government simply exercised power over them. But under
the modern political system, people are closely associated with politics. They
do convey their demands and opinions to the government. They also express
their support or opposition to government policies and decisions. Government
broadly relies on legitimacy of its acts in order to secure the support and
cooperation of the people. This model identifies three basic characteristics of
political development. They are :

1. Equality:
It means mass participation and involvement of most of the people in
the politics of the country without discrimination on artificial grounds like
religion, caste, creed etc. No section of the people should be deprived of
rights to participate in the politics of the country. All people whether rich
or poor, strong or weak, should submit to the same dictates of law. The
recruitment to political office should be made on the basis of
achievement and standard of performance. These three aspects
constitute the characteristic of Equality. It is found in developed political
systems.

2. Capacity:
It means the ability of a political system by which it can convert
‘inputs’ into ‘outputs’. It reflects the extent to which it can effect the rest
of the society and economy. Capacity is also associated with government
performance. Developed systems do more things than others. They do
them faster and with much greater thoroughness.

3. Differentiation:
The specialisation of structures is called differentiation. The offices
and agencies tend to have their distinct and limited functions and there
is an equivalent of division of labour within the realm of government. It
also involves the integration of complex structures and processes. That
is, differentiation is not fragmentation and the isolation of the different
parts of a political system but specialisation based on an ultimate sense
of integration.

Historically these three have shown a tendency of tension. A pressure for

greater equality may all challenge the capacity of a system. The differentiation
may reduce the equality by stressing the quality and specialised knowledge.
However, these three constitute the agreed variables for analysing the nature
and level of political development.

HUNGTINGTON
Huntington's characteristics of political development are based on his study
of how political
systems evolve and change over time. According to Huntington, political
development can
be understood through several key characteristics:
1. Institutionalization:
Huntington emphasizes the importance of building and sustaining
strong political institutions that are capable of serving as effective
channels for political behavior. These institutions help to establish rules,
 norms, and procedures that guide political interactions and decision-
making processes.

2. Differentiation:
Huntington highlights the need for the differentiation of different
sectors and functions within a political system. This involves the
specialization of roles and responsibilities among various political actors,
such as government agencies, political parties, interest groups, and civil
society organizations.

3. Dependence:
Huntington argues that political development often involves a shift
from traditional forms of authority and legitimacy towards more rational-
legal forms of governance. This transition requires establishing
mechanisms for political accountability and responsiveness to the needs
and demands of the population.

4. Modernization:
Huntington suggests that political development is closely linked to the
broader process of societal modernization. This involves economic
growth, urbanization, social mobilization, and cultural changes that can
create both opportunities and challenges for political systems.

5. Political Participation:
Huntington emphasizes the importance of promoting political
participation and inclusivity in the decision-making processes of a
society. This involves expanding opportunities for citizens to engage in
political activities, such as voting, protests, advocacy, and policymaking.

Overall, Huntington's characteristics of political development provide a

framework for analyzing the dynamics of political change and transformation in
different societies. By focusing on aspects such as institutionalization,
differentiation, dependence, modernization, and political participation,
researchers and policymakers can better understand the complexities of
political development and governance.

ALMOND and POWELL

Based on the structural functional analysis of political system, Gabriel
Almond and GB Powell identified three basic characteristics of political
development:

1. Structural Differentiation:
Structural differentiation implies the evolution of distinct structures
and organs or institutions for the performance of different functions of
political system.

2. Secularization of culture:
It is the process of separating religious or spiritual concerns
from society and replacing them with non-religious values.

3. Expansion of capabilities:
Expansion of capabilities implies an increase in fourt types of
 capabilities of political system:
• Regulative capability: the capability of legitimate coercion to
control the behaviour of individuals and groups.
• Extractive capability: the capability to appropriate the natural and
human resources of society and international environment.
• Distributive Capability: the capability to distribute various benefits
of individuals and groups.
• Responsive capability: the capability to respond to the demands
coming from society and international environment.
A balanced development requires that regulative andextractive
capabilities of political system are suitably matched with Its distributive
and capabilities.

If developing countries are able to develop these characteristics in their

political Systems, they are likely to prove more efficient in their functioning.
But each of these countries must combine these requisites with its own genius.
Because of their large size, complex and multicultural character combined with
the heritage of communitarian sentiment, they should, not be reduced to
competitive market societies in the name of their political development.

PROBLEMS OR CRISIS OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

LUCIAN PYE
Lucian Pye, whose contribution to the theory of political development has
been noteworthy has outlined the different crises that the process of political
development is expected to overcome. These crises are:-
1. Identity crises:
People in a new state have identities with tribe or caste or ethnic and
linguistic groups. They find it difficult to recognise their national territory
as their true homeland. This problem to identity the national territory is
called identity crisis.

2. Legitimacy crises:
The people of new states find it difficult to understand the relationship
between central and local authorities. The limits of the bureaucracy or of
the army are not properly understood. This is called Legitimacy crisis.

3. Penetration crises:
In traditional societies government had limited demands to make on
the society. In a new state the government has to down to the village
level and touch the daily lives of people. The problem a new state
regarding this is called the Penetration crisis.

4. Participation crises:
When there is Uncertainty over the appropriate expansion and when
the influx of new Participants creates serious strains it is called the
Participation Crisis.

5. Integration crises:
Problems relating politics to governmental performance create
 Integration Crisis.

6. Distributives crises:
The Distributives Crisis refers to the questions about how
governmental powers are to be used to influence the distributions of
goods, services and values throughout the society.

Pye tries to show that the nature of these crises determines the sequence of
political development in different countries of the world.

ALMOND AND POWELL

Almond and Powell put forward four types of problems to Political
Development. They are:

1. Problem of State-building:
This problem arises when there is a threat to the survival of the
political system from international environment or from society in the
form revolutionary pressure, challenging the stability or the survival of
the political system. It may result from the development among the
political elite of new goals such as national expansion or the creation of
an extravagant court life.

2. Problem of Nation-building:
Nation building puts emphasis on the fact that one should give up
narrow loyalties such as loyalty to the tribal chief, family, caste, ethnic
group, religion, region etc. And concentrate on his loyalty to the nation.
The problem of nation-building or national integration has not been
solved in India on account of the attitude of the various minorities who
put emphasis on their separate interests.

3. Problem of Participation:
Whenever a society develops politically, there is an increasing
demand from the public for a share in the decision-making process.
These demands are generally put forward through such political
structures as political parties, pressure groups, factions and various
organisations. Political participation implies the development of the
requisite political infra-structure and the responsive attitude and
bargaining skill of the elite.

4. Problem of Distribution:
Increased political participation leads to the demand that the values,
benefits and national income should be distributed equally among all the
sections of society, irrespective of caste, colour, sex and creed. Equal
opportunities should be given to all and merit alone should be the
criterion for selection to the high posts.

CRITICISM
The concept of political development has been subjected to various
criticisms. In the first place, the concept lacks a precise definition. Anybody,
even after thoroughly studying the rich literature on this subject gets really
confused as regards to what political development covers and what it does not.
Secondly, the different studies on the subject suffer from the absence of any
coherent political model of the development process. The concept of
development implies certain goals or ideals. The western democratic society is
looked to as ideal. The traditional or transitional societies of Asia, Africa and
Latin America have to look at the western liberal democracies. However, what
suits a western democracy may not suit a traditional society. The western
societies themselves have some defects. Finally, the concept is not in a
position to offer a model that maybe applied uniformly to all countries of the
world.

CONCLUSION
In spite of the various criticisms levelled against the theory of political
development, this approach has immensely contributed towards broadening
the scope of empirical investigations. It has also provided the scope of scholars
of the Western countries to study the political conditions of the newly emerging
countries in the Third World. Further, the study of political development has
brought political scientists, sociologists and economists somewhat closer by
differentiation between their respective autonomies and contributions.