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Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Graduate School

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1974

Land use planning : a focus on rural land

John J. Eckes
The University of Montana

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 LAND USE PLANNING

- A F ocu s On Rural Land -

by

John J . E ckes

B ach elor of S c ie n c e 1956

U n iv ersity of W isconsin
at P la tte v ille

P resen ted in partial fu lfillm en t o f the

req uirem en ts fo r the d egree o f

M a ster of R eso u rce A dm inistration

UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA

1974

Approved by:

iairm an.

Date
 UMI Number: EP36748

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to the S o il C onservation S e r v ic e , United S ta te s

Departm ent of A gricu ltu re, fo r the opportunity to attend this graduate

study p rogram .

S in c e r e appreciation is ex p ressed to D r. Richard E . Shannon,

D irecto r o f the R esource A dm inistration P rogram , fo r his help and

guidance.

Thanks to W ilson T . M oon, S ta te C on servationist of Iowa, S ta te

O ffice and A r ea -6 S C S p erson n al, fo r th eir support and cooperation ex­

tended on many req u ests fo r a s s is ta n c e .

F in a lly , I am m ost grateful to m y w ife , J u lie , and three ch ild ren ,

T r a cy , S u e and P atrick , fo r th eir h elp , patience and encouragem ent

th is past y e a r .
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter P age

I INTRODUCTION.............................................................

II LAND USE: CURRENT AND FUTURE T R E N D S........................... 5

A Review of Land U se Planning

C urrent Land U se P attern s
Future Needs: A Look Ahead

III A SUMMARY OF CURRENT LAND USE POLICY LEGIS­

LATION.............................................................................................. 12

IV A REVIEW OF LAND U SE REGULATIONS................... 19

Rural Land U se R egulations

Rural Zoning
Planning and R egulations
R egulations - A L im ited Tool

V LAND U SE PLANNING RESOURCE DATA N EED S, CO­

ORDINATION, MANIPULATION AND RETRIEVAL.. 33

U s e s of R esou rce Information

C h a ra cteristics o f a G eo-Inform ation S ystem

VI ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN LAND USE PLANNING. 42

Land T enure S tru ctu res

Land Tenure Options
E conom ic Growth sind Environm ental D ecay
E conom ic Im plications of S o il guid W ater C onservation
D oes C onservation Pay?
C redit Beise
P referen tia l Taxation
P ublic P u rch ase (F ee or E asem ent)
Environm ental C onservation Tax C redit Program

VII THE CITZEN ROLE AND ACCEPTANCE OF A LAND USE

POLICY.......................................................................................... 75

VIII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION........................................... 86

 L IS T OF ILLU STRA TIO N S

F igure Page

1. Land U tilization in the United S t a t e s .................................... 7

2. Future U se of Farm land in the United S t a t e s .................. 11

3. Rural Zoning L e g isla tio n ........................................................... 28

4. Im plications of Our Land T enure S y s t e m s ...................... 46

5. E x tern alities in Land U se............................................................ 52

6. E xternality of "Spillover" of P oor Land M anagem ent. . 54

7. The Consumption of T e c h n o lo g y ............................................ 58

8. O n -site and O ff-site D a m a g e s ................................................ 61

9. Indifference C u r v e ....................................................................... 62

10. Illustration of a Landowner’s D ecision to Manage H is Land

Without S o c ia l S p i l l o v e r s ................................................ . 74

11. Flow Diagram of the Planning P r o c e s s ............................. 81

12. A Public Attitude Toward Land U se C ontrol..................... 88

 CH A PTER I

LAND USE PLANNING - A FOCUS ON RURAL LAND

Introduction
f

In the decade of the se v e n tie s the regulation and control o f land

u se m ay be extended beyond anything w e have experienced in th is field

to d ate. S ig n s of change a re e sp e c ia lly v isib le in the le g isla tiv e a r e a ,

in both sta te and fed eral le v e ls . National Land U se Planning b ills new

in C o n g ress, if p a sse d , w ill have a rem endous im pact on both private

and public land u s e .

A s a p rofession al r e so u rc e con servation ist working fo r the U .S

S o il C onservation S e r v ic e fo r the past seven teen y e a r s , I w ish to d is­

c u ss se v er a l points of land u se planning as they a re related to natural

reso u rce m anagem ent, m ore sp e c ific a lly to s o il and w a ter.

Land U se p o lic ie s and land planning a re certain ly not n ew . We

have pursued con sciou s land u se p o lic ie s at the national, state and local

le v e ls for m any y e a r s , beginning perhaps with our e a rly land s a le s in

the United S ta te s under the H om estead A ct of 1862. T here a re many

land eth ics and concepts prevalent in the United S ta te s today and they

all m u st be considered if w e are to bring about a change that is accept­

able and d e sir e d . A b rief look at som e of th e se are:

F ill it up, connect it up, use it up.

 r u do what 1 p le a se with m y land and no one has the
right to tell m e d ifferen tly .

We abuse land b ecau se w e regard it a s a com m odity be­

longing to u s . When w e see land a s a community to which
w e belong, w e m ay begin to u se it with love and r e sp e c t.
T h ere is no other way fo r land to su rv iv e the im pact of
m echanized m an, nor fo r us to reap from it the e sth e tic
h a rv est it is capable,un der s c ie n c e , o f contributing to
c u ltu r e s. ^

Changes which se em to be in evitab le, w ill not occu r

without con sid erab le co n tro v ersy , con flict and p olitical
stru g g le • It appears the cen ter of con troversy m ay be
w ith ow ners of rural land — fa r m e r s , ran ch ers, land
d ev elo p ers and sp ecu la to rs and m ore d iv e r s e , e s s e n ti­
a lly urban-oriented groups of co n se rv a tio n ists, environ­
m e n ta lis ts, planners and o th ers who are responding to
a need to p r e se r v e and r esto r e outdoor landscapes and
rural co u n try sid es.^

B ehind the em erging con troversy a re stron gly divergent v a lu es

with r e sp e c t to what con stitu tes a quality environm ent and a sa tisfy in g

way of lif e . T o a large extent the con troversy w ill center on two v e r y

p ractical questions: (1) Can private land u s e s be controlled fo r public

b enefits and purposes; and (2) d oes the ow ner of open o r rural land

have a right to a m onetary p rofit, not sim p ly from the productivity

of h is land and h is meuiagerial im put, but from the unearned in crem en ts

due to fortu itou s location and population growth o r m ovem ent (urbaniza­

tion)?

^Aldo L eopold, A Sand County A lm anac, (Oxford U n iversity P r e s s ,

I n c ., 1966), The F orw ard,
2
Norman W engert, "Legal A sp ects o f Land U se P o lic ie s , P lan s
and Im plem entation", (P aper presen ted at the S o il C onservation S o c ie ty
o f A m erica C on feren ce, D es M oin es, Iowa, 27 Novem ber 1972), p . 142.
 F o r lan d u s e r e g u la t io n s an d c o n t r o ls to b e c a r r ie d o u t e f f e c t i v e l y ,

th e f i r s t q u e s t io n w ill h a v e to b e a n s w e r e d , " y e s" and th e s e c o n d q u e s t io n

a n s w e r e d , "no"

If t h e s e a r e th e u lt im a t e a n s w e r s t im e b r in g s , th e y w ill n o t b e w it h ­

o u t c o n f li c t o r c o m p r o m is e a lo n g th e w a y .

T h e S o i l C o n s e r v a t io n S e r v i c e h a s b e e n in v o lv e d in la n d u s e p la n n in g

s i n c e i t w a s e s t a b lis h e d in 1933."^ D a ta and f a c t s on s o i l and w a t e r r e ­

s o u r c e s a r e a s ig n if ic a n t im p u t in c o n v e n tio n a l lan d u s e p la n n in g . T oday

a w e a lt h o f b a s ic n a tu r a l r e s o u r c e and o t h e r in fo r m a tio n i s a v a i l a b l e .

L a n d o w n e r s and c o m m u n it ie s h a v e a m o r a l o b lig a t io n , and i n c r e a s i n g l y ,

a le g a l o b lig a t io n to u s e t h is in f o r m a t io n . T h e S o i l C o n s e r v a t io n S e r v i c e
R
and o t h e r a g e n c i e s w o r k to s u p p ly i t .

In th e f o llo w in g C h a p t e r s , I w is h to d i s c u s s s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f lan d

u s e p la n n in g , c u r r e n t l e g i s l a t i o n , la n d u s e r e g u l a t i o n s , la n d u s e e c o n o m i c s ,

th e c i t i z e n ’s r o le in la n d u s e p la n n in g and r e s o u r c e d a ta n e e d s a s th e y

a p p ly p r im a r i ly to r u r a l la n d u s e p la n n in g and a s o i l and w a t e r c o n s e r v a ­

tio n p r o g r a m .

In d o in g s o I w i l l u s e e x a m p le s and d a ta p r im a r i ly fr o m th e s t a t e s

o f P e n n s y lv a n ia , Io w a and W i s c o n s i n . I h a v e w o r k e d f o r th e S o i l C o n -

^ Ibid . , p . 1 4 3 .

4,
C o n g r e s s e s t a b lis h e d to S o i l E r o s io n S e r v i c e in th e D e p a r t m e n t o f
I n t e r io r in 1 9 3 3 . T h e S . E . S . w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o th e D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i­
c u lt u r e in 1 9 3 5 and n a m e d th e S o i l C o n s e r v a t io n S e r v i c e .

^ K e n n eth E . G r a n t, " L and U s e : P a s t and P r e s e n t " , P a p e r p r e s e n t e d

a t S o i l C o n s e r v a t io n S o c i e t y o f A m e r ic a n C o n f e r e n c e , D e s M o i n e s , I o w a ,
N o v e m b e r , 1 9 7 2 , p . 2 0 .________________
serv a tion S e r v ic e in th ese sta te s and fee l the illu stra tio n s used a re typical

problem s and needs of the land u se planning challenge facing the United

S ta te s today.
 CHAPTER II

LAND U SE: CURRENT AND FUTURE TRENDS

A R eview o f Land U se Planning

The su bject of land u se planning has been thrust Into national pro­

m inence a s public p olicy m ak ers attem pt to deal with th is com plex sub­

j e c t , The ultim ate g o a ls a re w is e reso u rce u se and environm ental pro­

te c tio n . Land u se planning has been describ ed a s an idea w h ose tim e has

co m e .

Today’s concern appears to be the second period of in ten se in te re st

in land u se planning and co n tro l. The f ir s t ma^or concern Appeared during

the 1920’s and 1930*s, The m ajor focu s then w as on agricultural adjust­

m ent and the gradual rem oval of settlem en t from a r ea s of m arginal so il

productivity, poor living conditions and high c o sts of public s e r v i c e s .

A fter thirty y e a r s of r ela tiv e public dorm ancy, the topic has returned.

The focu s now is on urban growth and it s e ffe c ts on rural land u s e s ,

including a g ricu ltu re, w ild life habitat, w a te r , fo r e s ts and related natural

reso u rces,

C urrent Land U se P attern s

The lauTd a rea of the United S ta te s is fin ite . There are 2 ,3 5 billion

a c r e s in the fifty s t a t e s , about one-third o f th is land is owned by the

fed eral governm ent. Man can do little to m odify th is a c ea g e , Demeuids

on our land r e so u r c e s have been increaising. Betw een 1950 and 1970,
 6

our population increeised by one-third,^

The current land u se picture in the United S ta te s is documented in

"The C onservation N eeds Inventory", the ccm prehansive national inventory

o f private lands com pleted under the d irection of the S o il C onservation

S e r v ic e in 1967. The follcw in g data is taken from th is rep o rt.

One-third is publiO lauid owned by the fed eral governm ent, of the

rem aining tw o-th ird s about th ree per cent is urban and three per cent is

owned by s ta te , county and lo ca l govern m en ts, two p er cent is reserv ed

fo r A m erican Indians, 59 per cen t dr 1 ,3 billion a c r e s is p rivately owned

rural lan d .

T h is private land i s divided into four m ajor u ses:

I. Cropland: 4 3 7 ,6 8 3 ,0 0 0 a c r e s

2^ P astu re and range: 4 8 1 ,8 7 6 ,0 0 0 a c r e s

3. F o r e st land: 4 6 2 ,3 2 0 ,0 0 0 a c r e s

4. Other land: 5 6 ,2 1 7 ,0 0 0 a c r e s

The "C onservation N eeds Inventory" a lso show s m ore than th r e e -

fifth s o f A m erica n 's private land is not adequaKtely treated to the extent

co n serv a tio n ists fe e l is n e c e ssa r y to protect the s o il for su stained u s e .

O verall lauxi u se patterns have not changed g rea tly sin c e 1950, T here

hats been a slig h t increaise in urbaui and highway lauid areais. (S e e lauxi

utilization ch arts on follow ing p a g e .)

^Marion C law son, "The F in ite n e ss auxl F le x ib ilitie s of Land R e so u r c e s" ,

Journal of S o il and W ater C onservation, N o. 2 7 , (O ct. 1972), p . 2 0 2 .
 U .S. l â : : d U T iu z A T io :
M l. A C R E S '

O T H ER L A N D A

SO REST LA N D

1950 1954 1959 1964 1969

A . r i f . r . « V ..* , *#M r iM M ., . m in m m « m . s.
• • • • .■ « • (.! , WMVart. ..M t, ttM .V .flM I. .M
w ,L p t . a t T a t a i o » m .< C U l T u . ( Hte. t.iam.ritfi te«aowc

STAKDACD UETCOPOUTAR STATISTICAL

A:EA LAND USE, AVERAGE, 1970
P » rc * n f o f T o ta l A r t o

OTHER
15%

URBAN PASTURE
19%
10 %

W O O O IA N O
32%

pcom m «OUAII m a . m s a n a i i a 9. d 7
NONUIIAN ARtAS 47

• M K C < V .l. C « .M » # F . . w i t a , # # . , I* M C M M .r.riM K*M»i M V M f M f . M W

MtteVkTW., Ml*. ■■«mr.nt») tcMOwc MW.tCMK.ncf

F ig u re \ .S tc m d a rd m e tr o p o lita n a t a t i e t i o a l a r e a la n d uae,
a v e ra g e (p e r c e n t o f t o t a l a r e a ) , 1970.
 8

Future Needs; A Look Ahead

A recen t stud^ fo r the National W ater C om m ission by E arl Heacj^

and oth ers at Iowa S ta te University* projected agricultural land and w a ter

u se under nine altern ative s e t of a sstm p tio n s a s to population* w ater

prices* in secticid e lim itation and governm ental supply m anagem ent pro­

g r a m s . The general conclusion w a s that agricultural land would not be

a ph ysically or econ om ically sc a r c e reso u rce by the y ea r 2 0 00.^

M arion Clawson a lso sta tes:

I am convinced w e can rather e a sily m eet th ese in creased

dematnds. T rue enough* the total land a rea is fix ed . But
the output o f the land is a ftinction o f inpu^ o f labor* capital
and m anagem ent and th ese can be v a r ie d . ^

W e a lso do not u se our lauxi eis in ten sively as w e could*. The 1967 Con­

serv a tion N eeds Inventory e stim a te s that 631 m illio n a c r e s a re su itab le

fo r cultivation (land u se capability claisses I - III). A pproxim ately 438

m illio n a re currently bein^ u tilized a s cropland. About one#half o f the

rem aining 193 m illio n a c r e s are fo r e st lands and one half a re g r a ssla n d s.

S om e would require im provem ent by drainage* irrigation* o r conservation

p r a ctices applied.

^Earl O, Heady* Howard C . Madsen* Kenneth J . N icel and S ta n ley

H. Hargrove* ” 1972 A gricultural and W ater P o lic ie s and the Environm ent” ,
(Iowa S tate U niversity* Am es* Iowa, 1972).

^Marion Clawson* ”A Look to the P a st and a Look to the F uture” *

paper presented at the S o il C onservation S o c ie ty o f A m erica National
Land U se P o licy Sem inar* D es M oines* Iowa* Novem ber 1972* p . 31.
 9

E conom ie R esearch S e r v ic e (E R S) recen tly analyzed trends In pop­

ulation, production, and land u se by projecting changes to the y e a r 2 0 0 0 ,

and concluded that agriculture should t>e able to m eet the country's needs

fo r food and fib er (excluding fo r e str y products),^

With land developm ent follow ing recent tre n d s, the ERS p rojects

' that by the y e a r 2000, th ere w ill be a three per cent d e c re a se in the amount

of leuxJ in farm ing com pared to 1969. Of the nearly 34 m illion a c r e s going

out of fa rm in g, 22 m illio n would be fo r urban expansion including highways

and a ir p o r ts . The g r e a te st im pact w ill be around the current growth c e n te r s .

S even m illio n a c r e s a re projected to go from agriculture to recreation

and w ild life a r ea s • W here recreation is introduce# cis a m ultiple u se of

land, a d e c r e a se in the agricultural b ase need not n e c e ss a r ily fo llo w .

The ER S study a lso p rojects fiv e m illion a c r e s to leave farm laind

fo r public f a c ilit ie s , w ater control r e s e r v o ir s , defen se f a c ilit ie s , second

hom e com m u nities and str ip m in in g .

The net change amounts to one and one#half m illion few er a c r e s of

cropland, thirteen m illio n few er a c r e s of fo r e s t or woodland and nineteen

and one half m illio n few er a c r e s of paisture, range and fa rm stea d . T h is

am ounts to a little over three per cent of the m ore than one billion a c r e s

of lauTd in fa rm s in 1969.

^ S D A , E conom ic R esearch S e r v ic e , Our Nation's Land and W ater

R e so u r c e s, (ER S 3 5 0 , W ashington, D . C . , August 1973 ) p . 5 .
 10

The expected Impact of th ese land u se sh ifts w ill vary from region

to region in the United S ta te s . The g rea test change w ill occu r in the

Northeaist, w h ere nearly seven per cent of six teen m illion a c r e s w ill

sh ift to non-agricultural u se by the y e a r 2000. Central and w e ste rn region s

w ill be reduced by two per cen t or about s ix euid one-half m illio n a c r e s in

each reg io n . The southeast show s a d e c re a se of nine m illion a c r e s from

151 m illio n a c r e s in 1969. An in terestin g projection here show s crop­

land in creasin g by four and on e-h alf per cent with additional clearin g o f

woodland auid draining o f w etlands . T h is lea v e s woodland reduced by nine

m illio n a c r e s and grasslan d reduced by nearly five m illion a c h e s .

ERS concludes that by the y e a r 2 0 0 0 , so m e 222 m illion a c r e s of

the nation’s total acreage of m o re than two b illio n , o r about a tenth, w ill

be non -agricultural u s e . M ost of the land changes taking place w ill be

going fo r u r b ^ and built up a reas.®

Even though s e v e r e sh ortages of em ergency proportions

can be postponed and probably fo resta lled altogeth er, the s p ir -
aling app etites fo r r e so u r c e s created by our contem porary e c o ­
nom y, coupled with increeisingly refined and sop h isticated d e­
s ir e fo r q u ality, b alan ce, and beauty in th eir u tilization , m ake
it c le a r that the nation is facing the prosp ect of m a ssiv e de­
m ands on a r ela tiv ely lim ited supply o f natural r e s o u r c e s .
Growing w orld demands fo r consu m er and agricultural pro­
ducts — so m e o f which the U .S w ill be expected to m e e t —
w ill add to d om estic req u irem en ts. It is evident that w e
sh a ll have to m ake a given quauitity o f land, w a te r, o r other
r eso u rce se r v e m ore than one purpose at the sam e tim e .
M ultip le-pu rp ose u se w ill becom e m ore than a m eans of

®Ibid.
 11

m axim izing efficien cy in r eso u rce developm ent — it w ill

becom e an e v e r -p r e se n t n e c e ss ity o f life.®

JO O m t »MUIND-HOWrrftMRr K U 9 B ) BYYCAfl 2 0 0 0 *
WEST CENTRAL SOUTH­ NORTH­
EAST EAST

100%
I N onagricultural U

P attu r* and O ther Land

Forest and Woodland

Cropland

90% n
• L and th a t mMto th # C«iww
o f A grleultuf* M la ltlo ft o f a
f a r * : ira r H aaa ttaS ar I I
a a r « If M tlm a u d a a l * a f
a c r lc u ittm l p r e d w ti aaaaad
IS M a yaar, o r anjr plaaa
ovar 10 i c r * If #a)a# axeaad
110. P a a ta ra and o th a r land
tn e lu d * fa r* .to a d » , roada.
and w aatalaad on tb a fa rm
L an d la f a r m la tb a
p re d o m in a n t land uaa la tb a
41 e o ntlsaoae S ta t* . oecapy-
Ing alicbtly a a a r I biUioB
a e r * la IM I— mora th a n W
tM> • m io o o IM V IM O M O O t«M tMOMOO ###* IM O M M pareanC of to ta l land a ra a.

Soonoalo Rosearch Service, U aSaD oA . 1 9 7 ).

F igu re 2

®The National A sso cia tio n of S o il and W ater C onservation D is tr ic ts ,

The Future of D is tr ic ts , (L eague C ity, T exeis, 1968), p. 5 .
 CHAPTER III

A SUMMARY OF CURRENT LAND U SE POLICY LEGISLATION

Land u se b ills cu rren tly In both the House and Sen ate o f the United

S ta te s C on gress ere: S 2 6 8 , Land U se P o licy and Planning A ssista n c e

A ct and H .R . 10294, Land u se Planning A ct o f 1974. They a r e b a sica lly

s im ilia r b ills excep t fo r a few m inor d iffe re n c es.

The proposed leg isla tio n has three m ajor points of em phasis:^

1. They a re callin g for land u se control at the sta te le v e l - not

ju st "planning" o r "co-ordination" o r "information gathering" • The

purpose is to put teeth in the sta te land u se planning p r o c e ss - not ju st

m o re p lan s, but better planning and d ecision -m ak in g.

2 . ITieir em p h asis is on certain sign ifican t land u se is s u e s that

hâve regional im pact; such a s the protection o f c r itic a l environm ental

a r e a s , the control of so m e growth inducing key f a c ilitie s , the control

o f la rg e sc a le developm ent, and assu rin g developm ent fo r regional bene­

f it .

3. The leg isla tio n d e a ls with the rote o f the sta te s • The approach

is not to sh ift authority o v e r land u se to the fed eral governm ent o r even

to rem ove sm a ll units o f local governm ent from the m ajority o f public

d e c isio n s over land u s e . It is rather to encouraige the sta te s to e sta b -

^Norman A . B e r g , "National L egislation on Land U se P o lic y and

Aid to S ta te s fo r Land U se Planning", paper presented at G reat P la in s
A gricultural C ouncil, M anhattan, K ansas, July 2 6 -2 7 , 1973.
 13

Ush a p r o c e ss fo r Identifying and controlling th ose m ajor land u se d e c isio n s

that require a broader review than that provided s o le ly by the current

fragm ented approval p r o c e ss at the local lev e l • A s long a s the n e c e ssa r y

p r o c e s s e s are e sta b lish ed , the fed eral governm ent w ill not attem pt to

se c o n d -g u e ss the land u se d e c isio n s that r e su lt.

S en ator Jackson o f W ashington, Chairm an o f the S en ate C onrw ittee

on Interior and Insular A ffa ir s , included in h is presentation a b rief

h isto rica l review o f leuid u se planning and regulation in the United S ta te s .

He a lso sta te d ,

. . . laund u se m anagem ent d e c isio n s o f w ide public concern

a re often being m ade on the b a sis o f exp ed ien cy, tradition,
sh o rt-term econ om ic con sid eration s and other fa c to r s which
a re unrelated o r contradictory to sound environm ental e c o ­
nom ic and so c ia l land u se co n sid era tio n s. ^

F ed eral adm inistration of S 208 would t>e cen tered in a newly created

O ffice of Land U se P o lic y A dm inistration in the D epartm ent of the In terio r,

The D irector of the Land U se P o licy A dm inistration would s e r v e a s the

Chairm an of an Interagency Lauxi U se Planning Board com posed of rep re­

se n ta tiv es from ten other fed eral departm en ts.

The H ouse bill d oes not design ate a Land U se P o licy A dm inistration

be e sta b lish ed , h ow ever, the Departm ent of the Interior rep resen tative

would prx>vide a d v ic e, a ssista n c e and r~eport to the O ffice of Land U se

P o lic y A d m in istration,

^C ongressional Record: V o l, 119, January 9 , 1973, p , S 3 8 0 ,

 14

The Council of Environm ental Q uality i s sp ec ific a lly d irected to

is s u e guide lin e s to fed era l a g en cies to a s s is t them in carrying out the

req uirem en ts o f the Act^ (H .R . iO C ^ ).

T he fifty sta te s would be the prim e adm inistrators# To a s s is t

sta te s in carrying out the p u rp oses o f the A c t, C ongress is authorised

to appropriate not m ore than $100^ 000,000, each fis c a l y e a r fo r eight

y e a r s • In o rd er to be e lig ib le to r e c e iv e th ese ftmds# a s ta te would have

to esta b lish an . • e lig ib le land u se planning agSncy# . T o con­

tinue it s e lig ib ility fo r receip t of such g r a n ts, each state would need to

develop an . adequate sta te land u se program# , by the end of the

fifth fis c a l year.®

R elative to all requirem ents o f the sta te agency planning p r o c e ss

and land u se program , the A ct d oes provide tlincttonat d efin ition s, a

sp e c ific fed era l review p r o c e ss with co-ord in ation , and co-op eration

provisions# The sp e c ific find in g arrangem ents of the $ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,OCX) are

based on a c o s t-s h a r e form ula with the s t a t e s .

T h ere a re differen t c o s t-s h a r e ra tes proposed in each b ill. The

S en ate v e r sio n (S 268) sta te s ninety percentum o f the co st fo r developing

the sta te land u se program s; the H ouse sta te s seven ty five percentum be

paid by fed era l l\jn d s.

®Ibid. # S 380.
 16

T h ere i s con troversy o v e r the question o f what action s the fed era l

governm ent w ill take if a sta te d oes not com p ly. T h is is à se n s itiv e issu e

and it r e la te s to sta te s' rights: should a sta te be penalized if it c h o o se s

not to qualify fo r fed eral lahd u se planning o r program grants?

A dm inistration of the A c t, in the judgem ent o f Jarhes Sundquist,

would be d ifficu lt. " . . . no cabinet departm ent has e v e r been able to

act a ffe c tiv e ly , fo r lon g, a s A cen tral co-ordin ator o f other departm ents

o f equal rank that a re its com p etitors fo r authority and fUnds."^ It m ay

req u ire a supra-cabtnet lev el fo r adm inistration and c o o r d in a tio n .

National land u se policy leg isla tio n w ill have an im pact on all

sta te s I

The State of Iowa and Land U se Planning L egislation:

An E xam ple of S ta te A ction

The b ill S 268 and H . R . 10294, a s p a sse d , a r e m ore procedural

than su b stan tive. It provides fo r a sy stem o f fe d e r a l, sta te and lo ca l

plauming with fed eral g r a n ts-in -a id to the s ta te s . It le a v e s the content

o f the plans a lm o st w holly up to the sta te s •

Iowa currently has leg isla tio n pending in the House o f the G eneral

A sse m b ly . A bill introduced Marc±i 12, 1974, ( H . F . 1422.) would

^Jam es L . Sundquist. Making F ed eralism W ork, (Brcxjkings Institute,

Waishington, D . C . , 1 9 6 9 .).
 16

expand the existin g Departm ent pf S o il C onservation to the Departm ent

o f S o il C onservation and Land Use* It would a ls o provide fb r a sta te

land u se policy c o m m issio n , an ihter^pcverrm ental ad visory board* ard

county land u se plauming com m ission s*

The p rincip le d u ties o f the sta te land u se p olicy com m ission would

be to r~ecommend a sta te land u se policy and sta te land u se p olicy guide­

lin e s to be acted upon by the gen eral assem bly* to review and approve

lo ca l com prehensive p la n s, ordinances or regulations fo r land u se su b­

m itted by c it ie s , counties and sp e c ia l uSS d is tr ic t s . It would a lso have

authority to guide* review and approve com prehensive plans fo r land

n
u se subm itted by sta te a g e n c ie s.

The county land u se p olicy oom niission in each co u n ^ would c o n sist

o f not l e s s than nine nor m o re than fifteen m em b er^ se le c te d and appointed

by and from m em b ers o f the board o f s u p e r v iso r s, a convention of m ayo re

and city councilm an, and the s o il con servation d is tr ic t c o m m issio n e r s •

The counties a r e d irected to prepare a com prehensive land u se

plan to be approved by the sta te land u se policy com m ission*

H . F . 1422 s p e c ifie s tw enty-eight duties that the sta ts com m ission

s l^ ll im plem ent and com ply with * The b ill i s a lso sp e c ific in stating

fourteen gen eral land u se p olicy o b jectives fo r the state* An exam ple

o f th ese o b jectives are:

®Iowa, S ta te Land U se Planning A c t. H*F. 1422, by the C om m ittee

on Natural R e so u r c e s, D es M o in es, Iw a * M arch 12, 1074, p . 4 1 .
 17

1. P reserv a tio n of agricultural land.

2 . E stab lishm ent of c r ite r ia fo r the approval of: large s c a le

d evelop m en ts, key fa cilitie s* r e sid e h tia l, com m ercial and

industrial developm ents and undergound reso u rc es.®

T he current Iowa le g isla tio n , under cOMsideration» prcM des fo r

im plem entation by local governm ental a g e n c ie s. The fed eral b ill a l l ^ s

fo r th is form o f im plem entation in con trast to d ir e c t sta te planning and

regu lation. The sta te w ill be resp onsib le fb r key f a c ilitie s , a r e a s o f

c r itic a l environm ental co n cern , developm ent and land u se o f regional

b en efit, and large s c a le sub d iv isio n s.

In m any c a s e s , lo ca l units c f govern m ent, e sp e c ia lly the rural

co u n ties, are not organized^to m ee t the req uirem en ts of the proposed

fed eral and sta te le g isla tio n . The Iowa Code d o es provide fo r planning

and zoning bodies to be organized at the c ity , c o u n ^ and regional le v e l,

r
at the p resen t t im e .

It appears the action s proposed by th is sta te leg isla tio n in I ^ a

would m eet the req u irem en ts o f the pending fed era l leg isla tio n .

It is evident that the proposed fed era l leg isla tio n w ill ca ll fo r heavy

sta te and local in volvem en t. The sta ff a ss is tn a c e needed to m e e t th ese

dem ands w ill be su b sta n tia l, perhaps beyond the r e so u r c e s o f m any

individual counties and tow n s. Su bstate planning reg io n s, com posed of

^Ibtd.. p . 14.
 18

s e v e r a l counties e a ch , m ay w ell provide the financial and sta ff r e so u r c e s

required fo r data c o llec tio n , storage and r e tr ie v a l, cartographic functions

and educational a c tiv itie s . S tate governm ents could provide d ir e c t support

to both reg io n a l, county and c itie s with m any planning a c tiv itie s .

F a r m e r s and ranchers w ill be d ir ec tly involved; all m u st c o n sid er

the question o f public control Over u se o f private lands •

A ssista n t S e c r e ta r y of the U SD A , L ong, has ask ed ,

Who*s going to maü<e the land u se d e c is io n . W e have a trad­

ition in th is country of a kind of total land ownership which
p erm its a man to u se h is property a s he w is h e s , and s e ll o r
rent it to whom he w is h e s . The h igh est bidder gen erally g e ts
the land. Man y ie ld s that right with the Utmost Suspicion and
relu cta n ce. It is c le a r that a s A m ericans population continues
to grow , a s m ore co n flicts develop in land use^ and a s the
dedication to a higher quality environm ent g r o w s, so m e con­
tr o ls m u st be e x e r c ise d ov er m an 's u se o f h is private land.
H is righ ts to sw ing h is arm m u st end w here h is n eig h b o r's
n ose b e g in s. But how much control o v er what land u s e s ,
and by whom?

That i s the question which land u se planning leg isla tio n m ak es us

fa c e .

Land u se planning leg isla tio n d isc u sse d in th is Chapter has not

been enacted into law at the sta te o r national lev el to d ate.

The fa ct that land u se leg isla tio n has been drafted and is being con­

sid ered is ajn indication o f growing public concern fo r the u s e s to which

land is put by both private auid public e n te r p r is e s . No doubt; m arked

changes in our past land u se p o lic ie s and attitudes will soon be taking

p la c e .
 CHAPTER IV

A REVIEW OF LAND USE REGULATIONS

T he "Quiet Revolution" In lend u se control i s taking p lace

in the United S ta te s today in two p h ases neither of w hich, upon
c lo s e exam ination, i s in fa c t, à true revolution eis much a s a
return to fir s t principles* A s the "old saw" g o e s , th ere i s
nothing new in the world « T he m o st obvious phase c f the re­
volution in land u se control is the relocating of authority*
Mariy sta te s a re taking back the land controls delegated to
m unicipal governm ental units through zoning enabling acts*

The m ore su btle phase o f the revolution is a change in

the concept o f land, from a com m odity to be traded fo r
econ om ic gain to a reso u rc e which m u st be p reserved fo r
public health and w e lfa r e . In the fir s t p h ase, the stru ggle
is p rim arily adm in istrative and political; in the seco n d , the
stru ggle is constitutional and Judicial* In the fir s t p h a se, the
r e su lts a re v isib le ; in the se co n d , the battle lin es are ill-d e ­
fin ed , and the outcom e i s u n certain . ^

W hile consid erin g land a s a r e so u rc e rather than a s a com m od ity,

c o r r e c tly in d icates the change, it ign ores the cru cial im portance o f our
/'■
property right to c^ n it and to buy it and s e ll it fr e e ly . It i s e sse n tia l

that lauid be treated a s both a r eso u r c e and a com m odity. C on servation ists

who view land only a s a reso u rc e a re ignoring the so c ia l and econ om ic

im pact that would com e w ith any m a ss iv e restr ictio n on the fr e e alien ­

ab ility of land • Land sp ecu la to rs who view land only a s a c o m m o d i^

a re ignoring the grcw ing public realization that our finite supply o f land

^David G a llie s , "State Initiative on the National S cene: The Q uiet

Revolution in Land U se C ontrol", (paper presented at The Land U se Plan­
ning S e m in a r , Iowa S ta te U n iv ersity , A m e s , Iowa, A ugust, 1973), p . 3 1 .
 20

can no longer be d ealt w ith In the fr e e wheeling w ays o f our fro n tier h eri­

ta g e .

The follow ing Is a su m m ary taken from a new s sto ry In the M aine

T im e s . F eb ru ary, 1973.^

In a recen t court c a s e , the M aine Su p rem e Court ruled In favor of

the sta te law regulating su b d ivision s called the S ite Location o f D evelop­

m en t Law • The d evelop er relied on Individual se p tic tanks in an a rea

ruled g en erally unsuitable b ecau se o f potential ground auxl su rfa c e w ater

contam ination. The d ev elo p ers argued that the catse should be d irected

at the person com m itting the a ct which d oes harm aind not the person who

m e r e ly subdivided the laind, that the lauxi wais taken without com pensation,

and that the law w as unconstitutionally vague and Im p ossib le o f com p lian ce.

The court answered:

1. The le g isla tu r e Intended the C om m ission to scru tin ize p rop osals

before a harm ful act could be done. S u itab ility of an a rea should
r-
not w ait for a local environm ental d lsaister.

2 . Under the s ta te 's e x e r c is e of Its police p a v e r to protect public

w e lfa r e . It m ay Justifiably lim it the use which som e o v n e r s

m ake o f th eir prop erty. Our law has long recognized that a

landowner holds h is property su bject to the lim itation that he

m ay not u se It to the se r io u s disadvantage of the public. . . .

^The M aine T im e s , "The M aine Suprem e Court P la c e s L im its on

Land U se" , (F ebruary 2 3 , 1973).
 21

3 . J u stic e W eatherbee returned another d e c isio n which lite r a lly

has trem endous im plications: . . such property (land) is

not the r e su lt o f production and lab or, but is derived s o le ly

from the S tate it s e lf , the original owner; se co n d , the amount

of land being incapable of in c r e a se , if the ow ners of la rg e

tra cts of land pan w aste them at w ill without state r e str ic tio n ,

the S ta te and its people m ay be h e lp le ssly im poverished and

one great purpose o f governm ent w ill be defeated".

4 . The court a lso ruled: "The leg isla tu re has determ ined that
I
an owner o f a la rg e tra ct o f undeveloped land m ay no longer

sut>divide it , s e ll the lo ts and then walk away from the tran s­

action indifferent to the local catastrophe that m ay r esu lt when

construction and occupancy reveal the incapacify o f the environ­

m ent to withstand the im pact o f the developm ent." The court

a lso cited a ltern a tiv es; "the land be used fo r another purpose

o r , . • the im pact o f the eam e be dim inish ed ."

Rural Land U se R egulations

The term regulatory action s r e fe r s to la w s / o rd in an ces, reg u la tio n s,

co d es and official guides w hich rela te d irectly to the u se of land.

Land u se regulation i s regarded a s an e x c e r c is e o f police p o v e r

to protect the health, sa fety and w elfa re of its c itiz e n s . S in ce p olice

p a v e r is the ftjnction of sta te governm ent, land u se control a lso rem ains

la rg e ly a prerogative o f the s ta te . In m ost sta te s the power has been

 22

delegated to local m unicipal corporations • O rdinances regulating land u se

appeared f ir s t in B oston and L os A n geles around 1909. An ad hoc con vn ittee

appointed by S e c r e ta r y o f C om m erce, H erbert H oover prepared a standard

zoning enabling act sh o rtly th ereafter w hich granted zoning authority to

sta te s.®

A s new law s take a v a r ie ty of fo r m s , th ere appears to be a com m on

them e em erging: the need to provide so m e d eg ree o f sta te or regional parti­

cipation in the d e c isio n s that a ffect the u se o f lan d . There appears to be a

growing aw aren ess on the part o f local com m unities that sta te s a re the only

political e n titie s capable o f devising and im plem enting sop histicated tech­

niques to deal with such reso u rc e problem s a s pollution, p reservin g agri­

cultural land and controlling la rg e s c a le land developm ent. S o m e exam p les

o f th ese are:

Iowa

Iowa C onservancy D istr ic t Law , 1971.

An act relating to conservation o f so il and w ater r e so u r c e s o f the

s ta te , and to control w ater pollution. E sta b lish e s s ix conservan cy d is­

t r ic t s , delineated by the m ajor r iv e r b asin s within the s ta te . S o il lo s s

^im it regulations are adopted by each S o il C onservation D istr ic t. A llow ­

able s o il lo s s range is from two to fiv e to n s, per a cre per y e a r . A m em b er

of the sev en man S ta te S o il C onservation C om m ittee rep re sen ts each d is tr ic t.^

^ C a llie s ,”S ta te in itia tiv e" , p . 3 2 .

^lowa C onservancy D istr ic t Law; 64th Iowa G eneral A sse m b ly , D es

M o in es, Iowa, (1971),
 23

S o il C onservation D istr ic ts ad m in ister th is la w . S o il lo s s lim its w ere

esta b lish ed by each d is tr ic t. C riteria fbr estim atin g so il lo s s by w ater

from agricultural land, fo r exam ple Is based on the u n iversal s o il lo s s

equation.®

W isconsin

T he W ater R e so u rc es A c t, 1966:

The act contains enabling leg isla tio n encouraging counties to enact

ordinances that (1) p rotect sh ore lands and navigable w a ters and (2) pro­

vid e effectiv e flood plain zon in g. ®

(1) definite p rovision s have been m ade fo r a w ater supply and fo r a sew age

d isp osal method and (2) hazardous so il and topographic conditions have been

Identified, and that land u s e s a re com patible w ith such conditions.

Hawaii

One of the f ir s t su c c e ssfu l land use law s w a s passed In 1961. It w as

p rim a rily designed to p rotect agricultural la n d s. The S tate Land U se

C om m ission divided the sta te Into four division s: (1) C onservation, (2)

A g ricu ltu re, (3) R u ral, and (4) Urban. Land In rural and agricultural

d is tr ic ts a re used In com pliance with local (county) regulations prom ulgated

®USDA, P red ictin g R ainfall E rosion L o s s e s From Cropland E ast of

the Rocky M ountains, A gricultural Handbook 2 8 2 , W ashington, D .C ., G overn­
m ent Printing O ffice, 1966.

®Council of Environm ental Qua 11^, The Q uiet Revolution In Land U se

C ontrol, F . B osselm an & D . C a ille s , G overnm ent Printing O ffice, W ash.
D . C . . 1971. p . 10.
 24

by the S ta te Land U se C om m ission . Land in the conservation d is tr ic t m u st

com ply with regulations of the S ta te 's Departm ent of Land and Natural R e­

s o u r c e s ,^ T h is arrangem ent has not been without c o n t r o v e r t . Land fo r

p
hom e building has becom e ex trem ely ex p en siv e.

Pennsylvania

Environm ental Q uality Board:

The Environm ental Q u a li^ Board has resp on sib ility fo r developing-

and im plem enting regulations fb r erosion control and sedim ent c o n tro l.

The regulation provides that ero sio n and sed im en t control plans w ill be

prepared fo r a ll land distrubing a c tiv itie s by a person trained and e x p e r-

Q
ienced in control m ethods and tech n iq u es.

M aryland

S ta te S ed im en t Control Program :

To protect the natural r e so u r c e s of the s ta te , the S e c r e ta r y of Nat­

ural R eso u rc es adopts c r ite r ia and proced ures to be used by the counties

and the lo ca l S o il C onservation D istr ic ts th ere by im plem enting s o il and

sh ore control program s.^®

^State of Hawaii Land U se D istr ic ts and R egulations R e v iew , A u g. 15,

1969, Honolulu, H aw aii, p .2 .

® C allies, "State Initiative", p . 3 6 .

%4inot S illim a n , J r . , "Land U se R egulations B ased on S o il and

W ater C onservation F a c ts" , paper presented at S o il C onservation S o c ie ty
of A m erica Annual M eetin g, Colum bus, O hio, A ug. 18, 1971, p . 5 .

10
I b id .. p . 16
 25

F lo rid a

E n viron m en tal Land and W ater M an agem ent A ct o f 1972. T he s ta te

h as co n cern and con trol o f " a r e a s of c r it ic a l im p act ou tsid e ju r is d ic tio n

o f the lo c a l g o v ern m en t" , P r o c e s s e s o f lo c a l govern m en t a r e p r e s e r v e d .

D iv isio n o f s ta te planning i s g iv en r e s p o n sib ility to m ake r e c o m m e n d a tio n s. ^ ^

V erm o n t

A dopted a C o m p reh en siv e E nvironm ental Control Law (A ct 250) in 1970,

w h ich c r e a te d a s ta te en viron m ental b oard , w hich p a s s e s on a ll m a jo r d ev­

elo p m en t p r o p o sa ls fo r the sta te: fo r e x a m p le , su b d iv isio n s of lo ts l e s s

than 10 a c r e s and d ev elo p m e n ts above 2 ,5 0 0 f e e t . ^^

C olorado

T h e C olorad o Land U se A c t adopted in 1971, e s ta b lis h e s a nine m an

Land U s e C o m m is sio n , and an a d v iso r y c o m m ittee m ade up o f r e p r e s e n ta ­

tiv e s from c o m m e r c e , in d u stry , a g r ic u ltu r e , co n serv a tio n and natural r e ­

s o u r c e s , to g eth er w ith fo u r m e m b e r s o f the G en eral A s s e m b ly . The Com ­

m is s io n d e v e lo p s sta n d a rd s and g u id e lin e s fo r v a r io u s u n its o f g o v e rn m en t.

The C o m m issio n a ls o h as r e s p o n sib ility to e sta b lish a s ta te -w id e planning

p r o c e s s , and a d m in iste r planning funds a v a ila b le to v a rio u s g overn m en tal

a g e n c ie s . T h e Land U se A ct r e q u ir e s a ll co u n ties to c r e a te lo c a l planning

1A
c o m m is s io n s ,

^ ^ C a llie s, " S ta te In itia tiv e" , p . 4 0 .

^^Council o f E nvironm ental Q u a lity , p . 5 4 .

^^Ibid.. pp. 300-301 .

 26

R ural Zoning

Z oning h a s been th e p rim a r y in stru m en t o f land u se c o n tr o l, e s p e c i­

a lly in urban a r e a s . It h as p o ss ib ly been m o r e e ffe c tiv e in lim itin g change

in land u s e than it h as b een in guiding d ev elo p m en t. Zoning is m o r e a

n eg a tiv e than a p o sitiv e co n tro l m e c h a n is m . It can p reven t m any u s e s

under m an y c ir c u m s ta n c e s , but it i s w ea k er in prom oting o th er u s e s .

Z oning w ithout sound p lan n ing, i s not e ffe c tiv e , nor i s planning w ith out

e ffe c tiv e zoning r e g u la tio n s . ^^ In m y e x p e r ie n c e w orking w ith r u r a l,

p r iv a te lan d ow n ers in W is c o n s in , P en n sy lv a n ia and Iow a, I have g e n e r a lly

found a v e r y n eg a tiv e attitude tow ard m an y fo r m s of land u se c o n tr o l.

Z oning i s not a popular o r w e ll a ccep ted land u se con trol to o l. H ow ever,

th e p rim a r y r e a so n fo r th is n eg a tiv e a ttitu d e, I f e e l , is the co m p le te la ck

o f o r in e ffe c tiv e land u se planning in ru ra l a re a s . It m igh t a ls o be s a id ,

"Zoning i s a w a y o f keeping a lo t of p eop le occu pied w h ile so m eb o d y s t e a ls

the g o o s e " . ^®

Z oning i s one o f s e v e r a l reg u la to ry tech n iq u es availeüDle to the

co m m u n ity fo r sissu rin g th at the land u s e plaun i s c a r r ie d o u t. In a g en era l

w a y planning e m b r a c e s zon ing and zoning m ay not e n tir e ly ex clu d e p lan n in g.

But th ey do not c o v e r id e n tica l fie ld s o f a c tiv ity .

^^Clawson, "A Look to the P a st" , p . 3 4 .

^^Conservation Foundation N ew sletter, W ashington D . C . , Ju n e, 1973,

 27

Z oning p o w ers r e s id e in the s t a t e . The s ta te m ay e x e r c is e th e s e

p o w ers d ir e c t ly , it m ay c o n fer them on lo ca l u n its of g o v ern m en t, o r

it m ay do b o th . ^®

A ll 50 s ta t e s have au th orized zoning of unincorporated o r ru ral

a r e a s in m o r e than th r e e -fo u r th s o f the 3 ,0 0 0 co u n ties in th e U nited S t a t e s .

( S e e ru ral zoning m ap o f U nited S ta te s on P a g e 28)

T h e num ber and kinds o f govern m en t u n its em p ow ered to zo n e in

ru ral a r e a s v a r ie s by s t a t e . Included a r e c o u n tie s , tow ns o r to w n sh ip s,

c e r ta in c it ie s and b o ro u g h s, f ir e d is t r ic t s , c iv ic a s s o c ia t io n s , sa n ita r y
1A
d is t r ic t s auid a few s ta te c o m m is s io n s and a g e n c ie s .

T h e tren d tow ard s s ta te zonin g co n tin u e s. In 1 9 6 7 -1 9 7 0 , a dozen

le g is la tu r e s co n fe rr ed pow er on s e le c te d s ta te a g e n c ie s to zo n e d esig n a ted

a r ee is. F o u r ty p e s o f a r e a s w e r e involved: r o a d s id e s , flo o d p la in s , s h o r e -

19
la n d s, and a r e a s w h er e s ta te in te r e s ts a r e la r g e .
/
The kinds of zoning regulations authorized by m ost rural zoning

enabling statu tes fall into four m ain c la s s e s :

1. U se reg u la tio n s; a g r ic u ltu r e , f o r e s t r y , r e c r e a tio n ,

2. B u ild in g -tr a c t r eg u la tio n ,

3. B uilding s i z e r eg u la tio n .

^®USDA, E R S , R ural Z oning in U . S . : A n a ly sis o f E nabling L eg­

is la tio n , (by D . S o lb e r g and R . P f is t e r , U . S . G overnm ent P rin tin g O ffic e ,
R ep ort N o . 1 2 35, W ashington D . C . , 1972) p . 18.

^^Ibid. ^®Ibid. ^ ^Ibid., p . 4 .

 RURAL Z O N I N G ENABLING LEGISLATION
<Û
c
3
Q

ALASKA HAWAII
lA U â l 0*H U

EMPOWERED TO ZONE
SOURCE OF D A T A , A PPE ND IX
^ 2 Ail counti*» ^ Any city, extrot«rritorially T A B L E 2. C H A P T E R 1.

1 ^ 1 SeUctvd or c l a s s e s of c o w n t ie s O Selected cities, extraterrltorially

All t o w n s or t o w n s h i p s H Specified Stote a g e n c ie s
Selected towns or t o w n s h i p s A Orgortixed boroughs
I I Regionol planning o g e n c ie s
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE NEC. ERS 3145*72 (2 ) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE
 29
20
4. P o p u la tio n -d en sity r e g u la tio n s.

M o st zon in g enabling sta tu te s p rovid e authority to e s ta b lis h a g r ic u l­

tu ral zoning d is t r ic t s . T h is au th ority d o e s not co n fer pow er to reg u la te

21
a g r ic u ltu r a l a c t iv it ie s .

S o il C o n serv a tio n D is tr ic t s a ls o have regu latory p o w e r s , but th e ir

r eg u la tio n s d iffe r from zoning r e g u la tio n s . T hat i s , (w h ere enabling law s

p erm it) they m a y p roh ib it u sin g land in a sp e c ifie d harm ful w ay o r they

m a y orxjer c e r ta in p r a c t ic e s , o r m eth od s o f cu ltivation su ch a s con tou r

p lo w in g , te r r a c in g , s tr ip e lap p in g o r a s h ift from cu ltivation to g r a s s o r

22
tr ees. T w enty^nine s ta t e s have su ch prxjvisions. Two d is t r ic t s have

land u s e reg u la tio n s in effec t: C edar D is tr ic t in North D akota, and the

W arren ton -D u n e D is tr ic t in C latsop C ounty, O regon .

T he u s e o f zoning pow er should be c le a r ly d istin gu ish ed frx>m the

righ t o f em in e n t d o m a in . In the e x e r c is e o f the righ t of em m in an t dom ain

the ow n er i s en titled to co m p en sa tio n . Zoning p o w er, on th e o th er hand,

is u su a lly not r e tr o a c tiv e and i s e x e r te d m e r e ly to regu late the u se and

en joym en t o f the p rop erty by the ow ner who is not en titled to com p en sation

fo r any in ju ry he m ay su sta in a s a r e s u lt .

20
n b i d . , p. 15.

^ ^I bi d. , p. 70

SS jjS D A , s e s , "A Stand ard S ta te S o il C on servation D is tr ic t ’s L aw ",

1936. p . 1 8 .

23 I b i d . , p. 16.
 30

P lanning and R egu lation s

T he Standard S ta te Zoning E nabling A ct d e c la r e s that zon ing " . . .

re g u la tio n s s h a ll be m ad e in a cco rd a n ce w ith a c o m p reh en siv e plan . .

Z oning and reg u la tio n s a r e to o ls to help a com m unity a ch ie v e its g o a ls .

T h e r e is a tem p tation to s ta r t en acting reg u la to ry a c t iv it ie s in the

nam e o f action w ithout going through the en tir e planning p r o c e s s . T h is

h as ca u sed op p osition to reg u la to ry m e a s u r e s ra th er than looking to them

to c a r r y out sound land u se d e c is io n s that b en efit the m a jo rity o f the p e o p le .

It h a s a ls o ca u sed s o m e to think that zoning is planning o r that planning is

nothing but z o n in g . T h is gap n eed s to be bridged and the two tied to g eth er

w ith r e s o u r c e f a c t s . ( U s e and need of r e so u r c e data is d is c u s s e d in

C hapter V o f th is p a p e r .)

R eg u la to ry a c tio n s a r e no b etter than the plans and p o lic ie s w hich

th ey im p le m e n t.

R eg u la tio n s - A L im ited T ool

Land p ro b lem s ca u sed by p riv a te land u s e s c a n , to s o m e e x te n t, be

cum eliorated by im proved s t a t e , lo c a l o r conju nctive s t a t e -lo c a l land u se

planning and reg u la to ry p r o g r a m s. H o w ev er, reg u la tio n s cannot s o lv e

a ll p r o b le m s .

^^U SD A , E R S , E co n o m ic R e s e a r c h , p . 4 8 .

^^Minot S illim a n , J r . , "Land U se R egu lation s B ased on S o il and

W a ter C o n serv a tio n F a c ts " , P a p er p resen ted at S o il C on servation S o c ie ty
o f A m e r ic a Annual M e e tin g , C olu m b u s, O hio, A u gu st 18, 1971. p. 5 .
 31

S ta te and F e d e r a l C o n stitu tion s p rohib it the taking o f p riv a te pro­

p erty w ithout paym ent o f ju s t co m p en sa tio n . C ou rts have refU sed , a l­

m o s t w ithout e x c e p tio n , to uphold open s p a c e reg u la tio n s w hich p reven t

a l l , o r e s s e n t ia lly a l l , str u c tu r a l u se o f l a n d s , D e n i a l o f a ll eco n o m ic

u s e i s g e n e r a lly co n sid e r e d a "taking" u n le ss it can be show n th at a ll

27
ec o n o m ic u s e s a r e n u is a n c e -lik e .

W hile the p r e c is e lim it to the reg u la to ry p ow er is a s y e t u n c le a r ,

s e v e r a l c o n c lu sio n s can be b ased on an e x te n siv e exam in ation o f c a s e

law a c r o s s the n a tio n . (I) R eg u la tio n s c le a r ly cannot req u ire lan d ow n ers

to donate th e ir lan d s to public u se o r to p erm it public u s e s su ch a s hunt­

in g , parking l o t s , hiking and ca m p in g . (2) C ourts have a lm o s t w ithout

ex cep tio n d isap p roved a ttem p ts to hold land open fo r fu tu re public pur­

c h a se through zo n in g , although o ffic ia l m apping of s t r e e t s (but not b road er

a r e a s ) h as been upheld.^®

R e g a r d le s s o f the c o u r s e o f national land u se p lanning, public con­

t r o l s , a s in d ica ted , wi l l in te n sify o v e r the u s e o f public and p riv a te lands

In the n ext s e v e r a l y e a r s . T h e In crea sin g d em ands fo r land and the In­

c r e a s in g d ifficu lty o f sh iftin g a p a r c e l of land from one u se to another

29
m a k e s in c r e a sin g public c o n tr o ls in e v ita b le .

^ ^ A /lscon sln , In stitu te o f E n vironm en tal S t u d ie s , C o n clu sio n s and

R eco m m en d a tio n s fo r S tren g th en ed S ta te Planning and M anagem ent in
W is c o n s in , U o f W . , M a d iso n , W isc o n s in . 1 9 7 2 , p . 5 5 .

^^Ibld. ^®Ibld.

29 C la w so n , "A Look T o the P a s t" , p p. 3 4 -3 5 .

 32

C law son a ls o p oin ts out that m any land u se reg u la tio n s have been

adopted w ith no p lan s to guide it in n ea rly 50 p er c e n t of the reg u la tio n s

in fo r c e to d a y . "When it c o m e s to land u s e c o n tr o l, the p ro p er r o le of

lo c a l, s ta te and fe d e r a l g o v ern m en ts b e c o m e s highly im p ortan t. I fa v o r

having lo c a l g o v ern m en t take a m a jo r r o le , but under m o re guid an ce and

su p e r v isio n fro m the s ta t e s than h as been the c a s e until now."®® L ocal

govern m en t shou ld take a m a jo r r o le in the planning and co n tro l o f land

u s e , but to g r e a tly extend the pow er of in te r e ste d c itiz e n s o r g ro u p s to

appeal such p lan s and a c tio n , and w ith the appeal taken to a unit o f g o v ern ­

m en t w ith a b ro a d er g eo g ra p h ic s c o p e su ch a s a unit o f s ta te g o v ern m en t.

T h is w ould g iv e th e la tte r e ffe c tiv e s u p e r v isio n o v e r lo c a l land u se plan­

ning and c o n tr o l, but avoid u n n e c e ssa r y d e ta il. By th e s a m e token the

fe d e r a l r o le m ig h t be lim ited to su p e r v isio n o v e r and guidance to the

states.® ^

31 Ib id ., p . 3 6 .
 CHAPTER V

LAND USE PLANNING RESOURCE DATA N EED S,

CO-ORDINATION, MANIPULATION AND RETRIEVAL

A U n iversity o f W isconsin F aculty Land U se Problem D efinition S e m ­

inar concluded: the lack of sound natural r e so u r c e , econom ic and so c ia l

data w as a p rincip le cau se of inadequate land u se plsuining and plan im ple­

m entation . 1

The National A sso cia tio n o f C onservation D istr ic ts recognized the

need fo r c o llec tio n and interpretation o f fa c ts about natural r e s o u r c e s .

P r o c e s s e s o f fact-find ing eind in terp retive p r o c e s s e s need to be a c celera ted

and refined,^

L ack of sound data a ffec ts ev ery lev e l of m anagem ent and the planning

effo rts fo r private la n d s, public lands and public fa c ilitie s . In addition to

the lack o f relevan t data, there is no m ean s for integrating and analyzing

data in an effic ie n t m anner at s ta te , regional or in m any c a s e s lo ca l le v e ls .

The lack of data and a m ean s of data m anipulation, a s w ell as the absen ce

of aui integrated m odeling function fo r handling d ata, prevent the form ulation

of sound ov er a ll p o lic ie s , the testin g o f planning and m anagem ent c o n cep ts.

^Ibid. , W isco n sin , Institute of Environm ental S tu d ie s, p . 6 7 .

^National A sso cia tio n o f S o il and W ater C onservation D is tr ic ts , T he

Future of D is tr ic ts , League C ity, T e x a s, 1968, p . 6 ,
 34

and the evaluation of individual p rojects through environm ental im pact

g
a n a ly sis o r oth er planning o r evaluation p roced u res.

B eca u se of the variou s planning le v e ls , e ffo r ts, in te r e s ts , environ­

m ental im pact sta te m en ts, and other fa cto r s relating to d ecision -m ak in g

about the environm ent, there i s an e v e r increaising need to develop the

capaü^ility of coping with the m yriad qu estion s and p o licie s concerning the

so c ia l and physical environm ent.

A geo-in form ation sy stem incorporating an automated data sy stem

and sy stem m odeling ca p ab ilities is a useab le tool that m ight be used to

so lv e the environm ental or planning problem s confronting a planning un it.

O ver tim e , the ability to sp a tia lly o r geo-grap h ically m onitor and predict

change, quality and locate l o s s e s and gains of r e so u r c e s and the e ffe c ts of

th ese o c cu rren ces on existin g and future populations, and p red ict co n se­

qu en ces of p roject im plem entation a re procedures which a re dependent

4
upon so m e form o f automated geo-in form ation s y s te m .

The néed to provide a geo-in form ation sy stem fo r planning and

d ecision -m ak in g at all le v e ls is impor~tant and a lso needs to be coordinated.

C onsiderations include:

1. Data currently being co llected by public and private g r o u p s.

2 . P reventing overlap and in efficien t u se of data.

^Ibid. , Institute o f Environm ental S tu d ie s, U n iversity o f W isco n sin ,

p. 98.
 36

3 . Standardizing co llectin g sy s te m s fo r b etter data sharing and

interp retation ,

4 • D eveloping a com patible geo-in form ation sy stem fo r a ll u s e r s .

5 . Insuring com plete coverage and am up-dated s y s te m .

A w orthw hile geo-in form ation sy ste m m u st alw ays an sw er two questions:

W here is the location amd what a r e the geographical data?

U s e s o f R esou rce Information

U s e s of a geo-in form ation sy stem a re a lm ost unlim ited fo r emy land

u se planning Ajnction at auiy le v e l o f planning, 1 su sp ect the g r e a te st u se

in itia lly m ight be a t the sta te and regional lev el because of the lack of

cu rren t o v era ll sy s te m s availab le at the p resen t tim e in m o st s t a t e s .

C urrent pending fed eral leg isla tio n req u ires that a sy stem be estab lish ed

a s a f ir s t p riority item at the sta te le v e l • T h is leg isla tio n w ill a lso cau se

sta te s to be resp on sib le fo r land u se planning at a ll le v e ls .

B ecau se of the continual in c r e a se in am ounts of geo-d ata and the

e v e r growing j%ed to in terrela te and account fo r reso u rce and so c ia l data,

an automated geo-in form ation sy stem m u st include not only autom ated

data handling, but a lso an integrated m odeling capability.^ A t p r e sen t,

m o st interrelatin g of data i s done on a m inim um b a s is , The W iscon sin

IBS study in d icates the fe a sib ility and need fo r automating geo-in form ation

^ Ib td .. p . 9 7 .
 36

s y s t e m s . B ecau se o f potentially high costs^ som e central agency at the

sta te le v e l m ight be resp on sib le fo r coordination, c o llec tio n , retrieval

and u se o f a ll data d ir ec tly related to lauid u se and natural r e so u rc e plauining,

h o w ev er, the sy ste m m ust be totally com patible with the n eeds of lo c a l,

county and city planning g ro u p s, T h is is the lev e l at which m o st land u se

d e c isio n s w ill be m ade and it i s th is le v e l, at w hich people need inform ation

if they a re to be a m eaningful part o f the land u se pleuining p ro g ra m s.

C h a ra c ter istic s of a G eo-Inform ation S ystem

A c o lle c tio n , m anipulation and r etriev a l sy stem should be estab lish ed

with a range of c h a r a c te r istic s • L isted h ere a re o th ers not p reviou sly

m entioned:

1. Com puter data bank; com pute a sso cia ted equipm ent os it e v o lv e s .

2 . The sy ste m should expand and develop the data gathering and g en -

erating c a p a b ilities o f a g e n c ie s and local units of govern m ent.

3 . A unified sy stem and integrated co llectio n and recording pro­

ced u re.

4 . T echniques fo r (he m onitoring of environm ental and land a ctiv ity

c h a n g es. U se o f observation tech n iq u es, such as rem ote se n s in g .

5 . Inventory o f c r itic a l r e so u r c e s and data should have f ir s t p r io rity .

6 . M odeling Ajnction to study the in terrelation sh ip s among human

a c tiv itie s and c r itic a l environm ental r e s o u r c e s .

7 . S y stem stru ctu red to c o lle c t data on a sta te-w id e b a s is but a lso

developed to provide s p e c ific data on r e so u rc e m anagem ent a r e a s

 37

and d ite s , such a s a w atershed o r r iv e r b a sin .

8 . S y stem should be able to handle a w ide v a riety o f data fo rm a t.

In so m e c a s e s the collection found m ay require ch an ges.

9. Insure u s e r r e c e iv e s output inform ation within a reason able

tim e fr a m e .

10. S y stem should be com patible w ith existin g and planned fed era l

data fo r m a ts. If sta te inform ation sy s te m s are to generate

s ta tis tic s to form ulate national land u se policy and v ic e v e r s a ,

then som e, com m itm ent to com parability should be undertaken.

11. S y stem should c o n sist of a c la ssific a tio n sy stem which would

provide fo r an accounting o f natural r e so u r c e s in quantitative

te r m s su ch a s a c r e s , sq uare m ile s , o r b u sh els. With the aid

o f a com puter m anipulation s y s te m , crea te additional data from

origin al data; fo r exam p le, b a sic s o il data would be used to estab ­

lish data fo r agricultural productivity and capability, and a lso

provide interp retation s fo r variou s other u s e s , such a s highway

construction accep ta b ility .

■

12. T h e sy ste m should provide current land u se and land c o v er data,

through the u se of a com bination of rem ote sen sin g tech n iq u es.

The Earth R esou rce T echnology S a te llite (ERTS) data m ight be

used to provide an in itial data stru ctu res s y s te m . A e ria l photo­

graphic coverage at frequent in terv a ls could a lso be u tiliz e d .

 38

13. The sy stem could include an educational component to rela te to

dem onstration p r o je c ts, ch an ges, e tc ,

14. The sy stem should include a r esea rch function on v ariou s sub­

s y s te m s , such a s data u s e r , aqu isition , sto r a g e , m anipulation,

and input-output s y s t e m ,

The m o st im portant c r ite r ia or ch a r a cter istic o f a geo-in form ation

sy stem is that it m u st be resp o n siv e to the u se r and h is needs • Informa­

tion m u st t>e u sable to the d ecisio n -m a k er at the lo w est lev el o f planning,

An exam ple of a data gathering method fo r making geologic and

natural sc ie n c e inform ation availab le and usefVjl to planners is a sy stem

knovn a s the Sp atial A n a ly sis of N um erical Data S y stem (SA N D ). The

Land U se A n a ly sis Laboratory (LUAL) is a m u ltid iscip lin ary team o f g e o ­

lo g is t s , landscape a r c h ite c ts, agron om ists auid botanists working under

the a u sp ic es of the A gricu ltu re and Home E conom ics E xperim ent S ta t ion

at lOA/a S ta te U n iv e r sity . The sy ste m com bines two techniques; the o v er­

lay m ethod used by Ian McHarg® and com puter w eighting and m apping.

The SAND sy stem stan d ard izes d iv e r se types of inform ation in a

sin g le fom Sat w hich i s based on the d ivision o f the stucly a rea into c e lls

with concom itant identification o f the variou s c h a r a c te r istic s fo r each

c e l l . Once stored in a steuidard form at it can be combined to produce

®Ian M cH arg, D esign With N ature, (Natural H istory P r e s s , Garden

C ity , New Y ork, 1969).
 39

additional inform ation.^ Data distribution fo r each variab le can be displayed

a s a m ap. T h is sy stem can deal with problem s such a s san itary landfill

s ite lo ca tio n , construction lim ita tio n s, or sep tic tank su ita b ility . The

solution a ray is the m ap generated by the com puter using the se le c te d data

param eter: the a ray m ay c o n sist of one map or a s e r ie s of m aps showing

o
the e ffec ts of assign in g different v a lu es to the p aram eter.

Land u se planning at any le v e l, lo c a l, m ulti county, or sta te ­

w id e, m u st begin with a r e a listic inventory of natural reso u r c e s
to be m atched again st the needs and g o a ls of the p eop le. With
data on kinds and amount o f land and w ater r e s o u r c e s , on th eir
su itab ility fo r different u s e s , and on th eir spatial rela tio n sh ip s,
it is p o ssib le to m eet human and econom ic needs and at the sam e
tim e m aintain or im prove the quality of the environm ent.®

R eso u rce data should be gathered and generated w here needed along

high p riority natural reso u rce a rea s and m anagem ent s y s t e m s .

E xam ples o f th ese are:

1. Flood p la in s,

2 . W etlands and other sp e cia l sc ie n tific a r e a s ,

3. P rim e agricultural land from both s o il capability and land

ow nership,

4. E sse n tia l ground w ater recharge a r e a s .

5 . A re a s with high ero sio n p oten tial,

^J. N . V a n D riel, R . C . P alm q u ist, L . V . H . S en d lein , "A Com puter

Technique F o r Rapid G eneration of Interpretation Planning M aps", P ap er
presented at Land U se Planning S em in a r , Iowa S ta te U n iv ersity , A m e s,
Iowa, A ug. 1973, p. 91,
8
Ibid.
Q
Upper E xp lorer Land R esou rce C onservation and D evelopm ent P ro­
je c t, E xecutive Board (1973) RC&D P ro ject P lan , U SD A , S o il C onservation
S e r v ic e , D es M o in es, Iowa.
 40

6. A r e a s o f s p e c ia l s c e n ic b eau ty.

7 . A r e a s o f s p e c ia l r e c r e a tio n a l v a lu e s ,

8. L a k es and s tr e a m s w ith th e ir w a te r sh e d s d e lin ia te d .

9 . A r e a s w ith s e p tic tank lim ita tio n s and a r e a s su ita b le fo r s o lid

w a s te d is p o s a l,

1 0 . M in era l r e s o u r c e land s (sa n d , g r a v e l, c o a l, c o p p er, e t c . ) ,

11. A r e a s o f h is to r ic and a r c h a e lo g ic a l im p o rta n ce.

12. P o ten tia l im poundm ent s it e s and a r e a s w h ere they a r e not

d e s ir a b le .

T he r e s o u r c e s c o n sid er e d to be c r itic a l on th e s e natural r e s o u r c e

a r e a s are: a i r , w a te r , m in e r a ls , f o r e s t s , oth er v e g e ta tio n , fis h and w ild ­

l i f e , w e tla n d s, and p rim e a g r icu ltu ra l la n d s.

T h e s e r e s o u r c e s a r e c r it ic a l to m an b eca u se (1 ) they a r e
n e c e s s a r y fo r h is e c o n o m ic , s o c ia l, p sy c h o lo g ic a l and phy­
s io lo g ic a l w e ll-b e in g and (2 ) m any a re n o n -r en ew a b le, e x cep t
in te r m s o f g e o lo g ic a l tim e s p a n s , and im p act upon se e m in g ly
iso la te d r e s o u r c e m a y h ave a d e le te r io u s e ffe c t on oth er r e ­
s o u r c e s . ^^

E ffe c tiv e data g a th e r in g , data a n a ly sis and data r e tr ie v a l s y s t e m s

a r e req u ired to m e e t the im m ed ia te program n eed s o f s ta t e , f e d e r a l, but

m o r e im p o rta n t, lo c a l d e c is io n - m a k e r s . A p rim a ry p u rp ose o f r e s o u r c e

H . L e w is , J r . , D ata N eed s and Data M an!pulatiory(R ep ort p re­

pared fo r the Institu te fo r E n viron m en tal S tu d ie s , U n iv e r sity o f W isc o n s in ,
M a d iso n , W is c o n s in , 1 9 7 2 . ) p. 15.

^^tbtd.
 41

data is not ju st fo r the p rofession al p lan n ers, although th is is an im portant

u s e , but rather fo r local o ffic ia ls and c itiz e n s to u se and to understand.

Many profession al r eso u rce m anagers lo se com plete p ersp ective and im ­

portance of th is fa c t. If people are to becom e and rem ain an in telligen t

part of the planning p r o c e s s , th is inform ation m u st be available and under­

stood.^^

P rim ary em p hasis should be placed on gathering basic data useful

to ongoing program s in a un iform , usable and e a s ily understood fo rm a t.

T h is would include land u se data concerning existin g u s e s of s o ils infor­

m ation and in terp retation s, g e o lo g y , and vegetation .

T here is a g rea t deal of r eso u rce inform ation currently available

fo r s ta te , regional and lo ca l u s e . M ajor em p h asis today*should be placed

on developing a geo-in form ation sy stem that is availab le and u sable at all

le v e ls of planning within a sta te and by all a g e n c ie s. T here a re ex ce llen t

exam p les of cooperative e ffo rts to develop and sh are reso u rce inform ation

between a g en cies and units of govern m ent, such a s s o il su rvey inform ation

between Iowa county a s s e s s o r s and s o il conservation d is tr ic ts .

^^Icwa Land U se A n a ly sis L aboratory, A Land C la ssifica tio n Method

fo r Land U se Pleuining, Iowa S ta te U n iv ersity , A m e s, Iowa, 1973. p . 6 7 .
 CHAPTER VI

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION IN LAND USE PLANNING

R eso u rce problem s a re often exam ined, review ed and debated from

m any points of view: e c o lo g y , a e sth e tic s, w ild life , w ater y ie ld , crop p ro-

2^duction, and o th e r s. In dealing with th ese p rob lem s, resou rce m an agers

often overlook the ftjll value o f econom ic a sp ect of a practice o r situation

fo r se v e r a l r e a so n s, but p o ssib ly because econ om ics is not an exact sc ie n c e

and good input data d o es not alw ays e x is t. T h ese lim ita tio n s, of c o u r se ,

apply to any con sid eration .

Applying "econom ic façts" in the d ecision making p r o c ess m ay c a st

a w hole new light on the p rob lem . An exam ple of th is an alysis is illu strated

in a S en ate C om m ittee R eport of Interior and Insular A ffairs on the c le a r

cutting fo r e str y p ractice being carried out in the B itterroot National F o r e st

in M ontana. The p ractice included clearcu ttin g, terracin g and planting.

If $ 5 0 .0 0 p er a c re is invested in stand estab lish m en t a fter clearcu ttin g,

with no other c o s t s , through the 120 y ea r rotation p eriod , the stand at

h a rv est would have to be worth $ 1 7 ,4 4 5 .0 0 p er a c r e , in order to return

fiv e per cent on the initial investm en t in regen eration . If the actual y ield

w e re twenty thousand board fe e t per a c r e , the stum page value would have

to be worth $ 8 7 5 .0 0 per thousand board fe e t . A ctual stum page value in

1970 d o lla rs w a s $ 2 5 .0 0 per thousand board fe e t . Twenty thousand board

fe e t is o p tim istic fo r m o st s it e s on the B itterroot F o r e s t . ^

 43

Sound econom ic a n a ly sis is c r itic a l fo r all land u se d e c is io n s , The

unchallenged dogm a o f r eso u rce sc a r c ity d oes not ju stify ignoring econ om ic

a n a ly s is , it m ay even point to a m ore c r itic a l need to con sid er th is type of

a n a ly s is .

A nother exam p le of incom plete econ om ic a n a ly sis regarding land use

is that of urbanization c o s t s . Uncontrolled suburban spraw l req u ires a

la r g e r public investm ent in s e r v ic e fa c ilitie s per housing unit se rv e d them

do m o re com pact se ttle m e n ts, according to the USDA Econom ic R esearch

S e r v ic e .^ In studying urbanization c o sts in a typical county in C aliforn ia,

they found that before each new hom e— $ 1 5 ,OCX),00 value— could be built

and so ld by private e n te r p r ise , governm ental a g en cies had to in vest

$ 1 5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 in public f a c ilit ie s , such eis roads emd sc h o o ls.^ T h ese c o s ts

a re often not consid ered by the private d evelop er and in many Ccises appear

a fter the developm ent is e sta b lish e d .

S in c e land reso u rc e u se and environm ental quality have becom e m ajor

national c o n c er n s, they m ay now be eippreached in conjunction with other

national g o a ls and perhaps even com pete with econom ic grow th, fu ll em p lqy-

^ U . S . C on gress S en ate C om m ittee on Interior and Insular A ffa ir s ,

A U n iv ersity V iew of the F o r e s t S e r v ic e , (Senate R eport, 9 1st C o n g r e ss,
2nd S e s s io n , Document 9 1 - 1 1 5 , 1970),

^USDA E conom ic R esearch S e r v ic e , Rural Zoning in the U . S . ,

(M iscellan eou s Publication N o, 1232, U . S . G overnm ent Printing O ffice,
W ashington D . C . , 1972), p . 4 2 .

® lbld.
 44

m en t. Inflation control and Income distribution q u estio n s. C o n v ersely ,

they m ay a lso join other ills to be rem edied such a s d ep r e ssio n s and unem­

ploym ent.

Environm ental depreciation m ay not be properly m ea su red , even

when an attem pt i s m ade to estim a te N et National P rod uct. D epreciation

o f private ca^Dital used in b u sin ess i s accounted fo r and ta x es deducted

b ecau se they a re private c o s t s . D epreciation of other public r e so u r c e s

which lik e ca p ita l, a re the w o r se fo r u s e , have not recieved the "loving

attention” given b u sin ess d ep recia tio n . ^

L an caster points out that the real problem o f environm ental depre­

ciation is not that c o sts a re s o c ia l, it is the fa ct that th e se c o s ts go unpaid

and uncounted in m any c a s e s . ^

Land T enure S tru ctu res

Land tenure in flu en ces m an’s behavior in the u se of natural

r e so u r c e s through p e r m issiv e and r e str ic tiv e conditions w ith­
in man to maun and man to maun relation sh ip s estab lish ed in
land tenure str u c tu r e. T h ese stru ctu res constitute crucial
m ean s fo r m otivating man to exp loit or c o n se r v e , to pollute
o r im prove reso u rce qu ality, aund to u se w ise ly or unw isely
our land reso u rc es.®

It ia im portant to understsund the in terrelation sh ip s between land ten­

ure and natural u s e , if th ese stru ctu res are to be resp on sive to im proved

^Kelvin L a n ca ster, M odem E conom ics; P rin c ip les and P o lic y , M acro
E co n o m ics, (Rand M cN ally & C o ., C hicago, III., 1973), p. 409.

^Ibtd.

® J.M . M cC orm ick, John F . T im m on s, "Managing Natural R e so u rc es

Through Land Tenure S tr u c tu r es" . Journal o f S o il and W a te r C o n se rv a tio n .
 45

u se euxi m anagem ent of our natural r e s o u r c e s . Land tenure is a double-

bladed instrum ent that m ay cau se or rem edy reso u rce u se problem s de­

pending upon the particu lar structuring o f tenure a rran gem en ts. Influence

m ay be in th ree w ays; by what a reso u rce owner is perm itted to d o, by

what he is prevented from doing and by what he is m otivated to do under

the existin g stru ctu re.^

Through the ftjnctioning o f land tenure str u c tu r e s, there has developed

a gap between Im m ediate s e lf-in te r e s ts of land/voners and m anagers and the

public in te r e st in the u se of natural r e s o u r c e s . A la is s e z fa ire theory of

econom ic philosophy, freedom of con tract, and fe e sim p le th e o rie s of pro­

perty ow nership have worked in tandem to em p hasize private righ ts and to

d isregard both public in te r e sts euid public righ ts a s w ell as private resp on -
p
sib ilitie s in the u se of natural r e so u r c e s .

T h ere is a tendency fo r land tenure stru ctu res to lag behind dynam ic

changes because of cu stom s and law s by which they w ere fo rm ed .

Land Tenure Options

T h ere are at le a s t three p o ssib le options that m ight be considered:®

I . Continue to provide individuals with the freed om s o f using

°lb ld .

^ Ib td .. p . 9 .
F ig u re 4 (Photo: JefTerson C o ., Iowa, 1973 by: S tan ley S im m ons)
Land tenure stru ctu res provide a m eans for ex p ressin g a landowners resp on sib ility for im proved
u se a s w ell a s h is right to do with h is land a s he p le a s e s .
 47

r e s o u r c e s and the e n v iro n m en t a s they p le a se in a c c o rd a n c e with

o u r tra d itio n a l con cep ts of land te n u re ,

2 . S h ift ow nership to public ow nership along w ith the r e s o u r c e s

th a t go w ith each p a r c e l. Although one-third of all land in the

U nited S ta te s is publicly ow ned, th is approach does not a p p e a r

to be so c ia lly a c c e p ta b le , n o r does th is approach g u a ra n te e the

d e s ir e d land re s o u rc e u s e .

3 . The th ird option fa lls betw een the f i r s t two options: land ow ner­

sh ip v e ste d in p r iv a te , public and q u asi-p u b lic e n titie s and

c h a r a c te riz e d by re s p o n s ib ilitie s and d u ties a s w ell a s rig h ts

and p riv ile g e s .

H a r r is em p h asized the n e c e s s ity f o r th is conceptual change:

The le g a l, eco n o m ic, and so c ia l se ttin g in which th ese land

te n u re p rin c ip le s evolved e m p h asized rig h ts and ignored r e s ­
p o n s ib ilitie s . A t the end of the colonial period a land rig h t
w as thought of a s any title t o / o r in te r e s t in any land th a t w as
e n fo rc ea b le by law . The sa m e is tr u e today. T h is concept
fa ils to em p h asize re s p o n s ib ility on the p a rt of the o w n er, ex­
cep t th a t in th e o ry any rig h t p re su p p o se s a co rresp o n d in g
re s p o n s ib ility . ^^

T im m o n s and M cC orm ack su g g e st a concept of tru s te e s h ip of land

re so u rc es. T h is concept is along the sa m e p rin c ip le of so il s te w a rd s h ip ,

a concept long prom oted by so il c o n serv a tio n d i s t r i c t s . T his idea is

a lso su g g ested by Aldo Leopold in h is proposed "Land E th ic s" in th e se

^^M arshall H a r r is , O rig in s of the Land T e n u re S y stem in the United

S t a t e s , (Iowa S ta te College P r e s s , A m e s, Iowa, 1953), p . 87.
 48

w o rd s , "An eth ical obligation on the p a rt of the p riv a te ow ner is the only
4-
v isib le rem ed y f o r th e se s itu a tio n s ." '

T he c u r r e n t co ncern and m ovem ent f o r a change in land u se eth ic s

m ay s e e c o u rts ru le a g a in s t d e s p o ile r s , w h eth er they be in d iv id u als,

c o rp o ra tio n s o r even o u r own g o vernm ent in fa v o r of m a n 's rig h t to a

q u ality en v iro n m en t.

Econom ic G row th and E nvironm ental Decay

E conom ic grow th is m e a s u re d in te r m s of an annual p e rc e n ta g e in­

c r e a s e in the g r o s s national p ro d u c t. Full em ploym ent is defined and

m e a s u re d in te r m s of the p ro p o rtio n of the la b o r fo rc e em ployed a t a

p a r tic u la r tim e . Inflation is defined and m e a su re d in te r m s of p e rc en ta g e

in c r e a s e s in m oney value of a p a r tic u la r am ount of goods and s e r v ic e s .

But no w ell-d efin ed and a g re ed upon sta n d a rd (s) of land r e s o u rc e use

and en vironm ental q u ality e x is t.

1A N eith er a re th e re in stru m e n ts fo r

m e a su rin g and achieving n a tu ra l re s o u rc e use and environm ental quality

c o m p a rab le to the m e a s u r e s f o r econom ic growth and full em ploym ent.

W ithout definition and the m e a n s of m e a s u re m e n t, n a tu ra l re s o u r c e u se

^ ^Aldo Leopold, A lm a n a c , p. 214.

12M cC orm ack & T im m o n s, M anaging N atural R e s o u rc e s , p . 10.

I
' vJohn F . T im m o n s, " Is s u e s in Land U se Planning C o n tro l" , Proper
p re se n te d a t Land Use Planning S e m in a r , U. of I . , A m e s, Iowa, Aug. 1973
 49

and en vironm ental q u a lity , a s policy g o a ls , re m a in o b scu re and s u b je c tiv e .

It is d ifficu lt to v isu a liz e s tr a te g ic in te re la tio n sh ip s between n a tu ra l r e ­

s o u rc e u se and en v iro n m en tal quality and o th e r m a jo r policy g o a ls , in­

cluding the tr a d e -o ff o p tio n s.

The m e a n s fo r p ursuin g p a r tic u la r u se s of n a tu ra l r e s o u r c e s and

env ironm ental quality a r e quite d iffe re n t in te r m s of m otivation and con­

se q u en ces f o r people in d iffe re n t s itu a tio n s , A m onopolist can sh ift added

pollution control and re s o u rc e reg u latio n c o s ts of his p ro je c t to c o n s u m e rs .

B ut an individual o p eratin g in the com petive b u sin e ss of farm in g m u s t b e a r

th e se c o s ts h im s e lf, a t le a s t in itia lly . In e ith e r c a s e , c itiz e n s m ay

u ltim a te ly b e a r the c o s ts through h ig h e r ta x e s o r h ig h er p r ic e s . They

m ay w onder w h e th e r they re a lly w ant im proved land re s o u rc e u se and en­

v iro n m e n ta l quality a s m uch a s they did when they supported th o se is s u e s

a s public s p irite d c i t i z e n s ^ It is im p o rtan t th a t im provem ent p o lic ie s

be su p p o rted by fa c ts and logic w idely understo od and accepted by c itiz e n s .

T he re a l is s u e s then in econom ic grow th a r e not w h eth er we will

have any grow di o r a t w h at r a te grow th w ill take p la c e . R a th e r, they

re la te to the m ak e-u p of the output of goods and s e r v ic e s and to th e d e-

W . B ark le y and D. W . S e c k le r , Econom ic Growth and E n v ir­

onm ental D ecay , (H a rc o u rt B ra c e J o v a n o ric h , I n c ., NY, 1972), p . 35

' ^ I b id ., p . 39.

^^Kelvin L a n c a s te r , M odern E c o n o m ic s, pp. 228-229.

^^T im m on s, Issu e s in Land U se , p . 20.

 50

g re e o r th e way in w hich en v iro n m en tal c o s ts a r e a s s e s s e d a g a in s t th at

1A
output o r land u s e . We could have an econom ic output th at p la c e s m a jo r

e m p h a sis on g o als w ith consequent heavy dem ands on raw m a te r ia ls ,

including m e ta ls and fu e ls , o r we could have a n ecnom ic output of equal

value th a t p la c e s m a jo r e m p h a sis on s e r v ic e s with g re a tly red u ced con­

sum ption of raw m a te r ia ls . We m ig ht t r y to ignore th e env iron m ental

c o s ts of econom ic output, a s we did f o r so long, o r we m ight in c o rp o ra te

th e s e re a l c o s ts into the p ric e s of econom ic output, thus leading to quite

d iffe re n t production and consum ption d e c is io n s .

T he idea of " in te rn a liz in g " c o sts of an "e x te rn a l d is-e c o n o m y "^ ^

is su g g e sted by the B ritis h e c o n o m ist, A . G . P ig o u , by taxing o p e ra tio n s

th a t g e n e ra te a d is-e c o n o m y . A tax on an e x te rn a l d is-eco n o m y w ould,

of c o u r s e , lead to an in c re a s e d p ric e f o r the product—which could then

e x p r e s s its " tru e " c o s t, including th e c o s t of environm ental d e te r io r a tio n

o r of the c o n tro ls needed to p re v e n t i t . S o m e eco n o m ists b eliev e th a t,

by th is and s im ila r m e a n s , the m a rk e t sy ste m can re a d ily a d ju st to the

p4
c o s ts of e n v iro n m en tal p ro te c tio n . A b u sin e ss such a s fa rm in g would

have d ifficu lty p a ssin g on c o s ts o r c o n tro llin g se d im e n t, feed lo t and o th e r

^®Clawson, A Look to the P a s t , p . 2 9 .

^^ I b id ., p . 30.
pr\
P aul S a m u e lso n , E c o n o m ic s, 8th e d . , (McGraw Hill , 1970, NY),
p . 453.

B a r r y C o m m o n er, The C losing C ir c le , (A lfred A . Knapf, I n c . ,

1971. NY). PD. 252-253.
 51

a g ric u ltu ra l p o llu ta n ts. T h e re a r e now and have been, how ev er, gov ern­

m e n t c o s t-s h a rin g p ro g ra m s and tech n ical a s s is ta n c e to a s s i s t landow ners

to t r e a t and c o r r e c t m any of th e s e e x te rn a l d is-e c o n o m ie s. T h e e ffe cts

and s u c c e s s of th is v o lu n ta ry ap p ro ach a r e d isc u sse d la te r in th is p a p e r.

The m a rk e t sy ste m re sp o n d s to co n su m e r dem and. T h e ir m oney

in com es d ir e c t the sy ste m and its perform ew ice.

G iven the s y s te m , the r e s u lts too often v io late o th e r

d e s ir e s we h a v e , o th e r v a lu e s and n o n -m o n etary dem ands
we m ig h t a lso like to have fu lfilled w ithin the s y s te m . Should
we then condem n and advocate scra p p in g the sy ste m ? The
a n s w e r can only be " n o " . Instead of scrap p in g o r condem n­
ing the s y s te m , we n e e d , through com m and, m e re ly to ex­
pand the input in fo rm atio n th a t m u s t be used b y p ro d u c e rs
and c o n su m e rs in doing th e i r own th in g . If w e w ant to p re v e n t
pollution of w a te r , we a s s ig n v a lu e s to u n d e sira b le u se s
th a t m ak e it uneconom ic to p o llu te . In th is way we allow
the m a r k e t sy ste m to continue its efficien t w ork y e t a t the
s a m e tim e , su b sta n tia lly a l t e r the r e s u lts .

W hen the s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s a r e m ade av ailab le a t a z e ro p r ic e , and

w ith no m a r k e t co n tro l of th e ir u s e , they ar~e often o v eru sed and d e g ra d e d .

T he fa c t they a r e " fre e " r e s u lts in th e r e being no incentive f o r people to

23
econom ize o r to a llo c a te it to th e h ig h est v a lu e .

A re s id u a l c h a rg e fo r pollution c o n tro l is su ggested by F re e m a n and

H avem an^^ a s a m o re effectiv e and e ffic ien t m ea n s of dealing w ith p o llu -

^ ^ R ich a rd E . S hannon, "S olving M an’s B a sic P ro b lem ; P ro v is io n in g " ,

E c o lo g y -E c o n o m ic s-E n v iro n m e n t, M ontana F o r e s t and C o n serv atio n E x p e r-
m e n t S ta tio n , U of M , S c h , of F o r , , M isso u la , M ont. (1971), pp. 104-105.

^ ^ G a r re t H a rd in , " T ra g e d y of the Com m ons" , S c ie n c e 162, (D e c . 1968

1968), 1245.

M . F r e e m a n , R . H . Havemaui, "R e sid u als C h a rg es f o r P o llu ­

tion C o n tro l: A P o licy E v a lu a tio n " , S c ie n c e 77 (Ju ly , 1972), 322.
F igu re 5 (S p rin g, 1973, Jefferso n County, Iowa)
Photo by S tan ley Sim m ons
A typical Iowa field after the soybean crop has been rem oved . F ield slo p e , 3 -4 per cen t, e s ti­
m ated so il lo s s per a c re = 15-20 to n s. Note the stream channel in the foreground becoming
choked with s ilt and d e b r is.
 53

tion co n tro l than c u r re n t p o lic ie s of en viro nm ental re g u la tio n .

The c a se f o r the econom ic in cen tiv es o r re sid u a l c h a rg e s r e s t s on

the accep tan ce of two p ro p o sitio n s, f i r s t , m a rk e t economy p ric e s play

a m a jo r ro le in the r e s o u rc e allo c atio n to the highest value and sec o n d ,

th at d e g ra d ab le enviro nm ental r e s o u r c e s a r e now outside the scop e of the

m a r k e t sy ste m and a r e not su b je c t to guidance of p r i c e s . E n v i r o n m e n t ^ ^

r e s o u r c e s such a s w a te r c o u r s e s , a tm o sp h e re and public lands have no

p r ic e , b ecau se one "one” owns th e m .

T he s y ste m of re sid u a l c h a rg e s b a sic a lly would ch arg e people to

d is c h a rg e w a s te s o r u se the e n v iro n m en t f o r th e ir d is p o s a l. D is c h a rg e rs

a r e led to co m p a re the c o s t of using the en viro nm en t— a s re fle c te d by the

re sid u a l c h a rg e —w ith the c o s t of handling th e ir w a ste d isp o sal problem

in a n o th e r w ay. T he choice of meeuis fo r dealing w ith the p rob lem is left

w ith the d is c h a rg e r ,

P eople g en eratin g w a ste w ill red u ce th e ir d isc h a rg e into the

en v iro n m en t a s long a s the m a rg in a l c o st of doing s o , the
m a rg in a l c o st of w a ste tr e a tm e n t (o r rec y clin g o r w aste s t o r ­
age) is le s s than the p ric e o r m a rg in a l c o s t of d isch arg in g the
w a ste to the environm ent.^®

T h is co n ce p t, of c o u rs e , le a v e s m any q u estio n s unansw ered a t the

p re s e n t tim e , such a s; W hat a r e allow able d isc h a rg e s ? How a r e a llo c a ­

tio n s s e t up? W hat a r e the m a rg in a l c o s ts of w a ste reduction a t the level

^®Hardin, T ra g e d y , p . 1246.

^® F reem an, H avem an, R e sid u a ls C h a rg e s , p . 328,

F ig u re 6 ^ I
E xternality o r "spillover" o f poor land m anagem ent. One of the m o st se r io u s and le a st appre­
ciated problem s asso cia ted with land u se is so il e ro sio n .
 55

of co n tro l re q u ire d by c u r r e n t s ta n d a rd s ?

A new enviro nm en tal s tr a te g y which m in im ize s i t s re lia n c e

on re g u la tio n -e n fo rc e m e n t and w hich e m p h a siz es the u se of
econom ic in cen tiv es to achieve changes in behavio r s e e m s d e­
s ir a b le on p ra c tic a l a s w ell a s th e o re tic a l g ro u n d s.

In itia lly , so c ie ty m u s t d e te rm in e its o bjectives w ith re g a rd to the

u se of land r e s o u rc e s and en v iro n m en tal quality re la tio n sh ip s to o th e r

so c ie ta l o b je c tiv e s, including a p p ro p ria te tra d e -o ffs to o p tim ize the ach iev e­

m en t of all d e s ire d o b je c tiv e s .

P u rp o s e s linked w ith c h o ic e s in using and m anaging n a tu ra l r e s o u rc e s

and the en v iro n m en t involve the developm ent of policy and p lan s th at

sp ecify the ran ge of choice p e rm itte d o r encouraged by the public in

achieving d e s ire d o b je c tiv e s.

E conom ic Im plications of S o il and W ater C onservation

O ver the y e a r s e c o n o m ists have studied and analyzed f a r m e r ’s

a ttitu d e s tow ard c o n se rv a tio n .

The f a ilu re of f a r m e r s to s e e the econom ic need fo r e ro sio n con­

tr o l continues to be a m a jo r o b sta c le to the u se of proven so il c o n se rv a ­

tion p r a c tic e s a s indicated by a study conducted in Iowa in 1957 by B lase

2R
and T im m o n s.

^ ^ I b id ., p . 329.

^®Iowa, S oil E ro sio n in C ontro l in W estern Iowa: P r o g r e s s and P ro ­

b lem s , by B la se and T im m o n s, R e se a rc h B ulletin 498, Iowa A g ric u ltu re
and Home E conom ics E x p e rim e n t S ta tio n , A m e s, Iowa, 1961 .
 56

E x c e ssiv e so il lo s s e s have not been a sig n ifican t fa c to r in re c e n t

s h o r t- r u n row c ro p p ro d u c tio n . H igh er f e r t i l i z e r ap p lic a tio n , im proved

plant v a r ie tie s , m an ag em en t tech n iq u es and im proved equipm ent have en­

abled f a r m e r s to m a in tain and in c re a s e y ie ld s . E x c e ssiv e so il lo ss is

c u rre n tly a p e r s i s t a n t and s e r io u s problem on o v e r eig h t m illio n of Iowa’s

26 m illio n a c r e s of cropland.^®

R ecen t stu d ie s conducted a r e showing yield d iffe re n c e s on erod ed

la n d .

C orn Y ields F ro m R e s e a rc h W a te rs h e d s a t T re y n o r , Iowa on

E roded and U neroded M onom a S il t L oam , 1970^^

S o il No. (Corn y ield in b u sh els p e r a c r e

sa m p le s 1968 1969 1970 1971 a v e rag e

Monona s i l t loam 25 110 158 114 133 129

Monona s i l t lo am . 19 114 153 119 123 127

eroded

E ro sio n m ay becom e a g r e a t e r lim itin g fa c to r a s technology, in

fo rm s m entioned abo ve, is fu lly applied o r a t le a s t the gap betw een actual

applied production technology of m o s t effic ien t m eth o d s known is n a rro w e d .

’’Technology is being consum ed f a s t e r than it is being g e n e rate d by r e s e a r c h .”

^^USDA, S oil C o n serv a tio n S e r v ic e , C o nservation N eeds Inven­

to ry f o r Iow a, 1970.

D. S h r a d e r , ’’C ro p P ro d u c tio n and Land U se P lan n in g ” , P a p e r

p re se n te d at Land U se Planning S e m in a r , Iowa S ta te U n iv e rsity , A m e s,
Iowa, 1973, pp. 209-2 10.
 57

A s th is gap is c lo se d , y ie ld s w ill tend to level off,®^ (S e e fig u re follow­

ing)

S o il lo ss f o r the United S ta te s is e stim a te d a t 4 b illion tons each

y e a r , 3 billion tons of th is to ta l a r e from a g ric u ltu ra l and fo re s te d l a n d s , ^

F o u r billion tons is eq uiv alent to the lo s s of 7 in ches of so il fro m 4 m il­

lion a c r e s .

A 1972 study com pleted by the A g ric u ltu ra l E ngineering D epartm ent

of the U n iv e rsity of M isso u ri showed th a t so il e ro sio n in som e a r e a s ser—

io usly reduced the production of c o rn and soybeans and re su lte d in a net

incom e d ro p of $18.32 an a c r e on m o d e ra te ly eroded fie ld s and $ 3 3 .2 0 an

a c r e on s e v e rly ero d ed f ie ld s . P ro d u ctio n c o s ts f o r tho se f a r m e r s r o s e

20 p e r cen t on m o d e ra te ly ero d e d a r e a s and 56 p e r cen t on s e v e re ly eroded

fie ld s due p r im a rily to the in c re a s e d tim e and c o st re q u ire d to p re p a re

the see d bed.

T h e se d im e n t dredged each y e a r fro m s t r e a m s , navigation c h a n n e l s ,

e s tu a r ie s and h a rb o rs in the United S ta te s , is e stim a te d to exceed 1/2

b illion cubic y a r d s . 1967 fig u re s indicate the c o st of rem oving se d im e n t

33
to be about 40 c e n ts a cubic y a r d .

31
Louis M . T hom pson, "L and P ro d u ctio n and Land U se Planning
C o n tro l" , P a p e r p re se n te d a t Iowa Land U se Planning S e m in a r , Iowa
S ta te U n iv e rsity , A m e s, Iow a, A ug. 1973, pp. 200-202.

P . B e a sle y , E ro sio n and S e d im e n t P ollu tio n C o n tro l, (Iowa

S ta te U n iv ersity P r e s s , A m e s , Iow a, 1972), p . 14.

^^USDA S o il C o n se rv a tio n S e r v ic e , S e d im e n t, (A g r. Inform ation

B u lletin No. 325, G overnm ent P rin tin g O ffice, W ashington D .C . . 1967T.
Ox
g

I
1940 \950 I960 1970

F ig u r e 7 . A ■chcawclc graph in d ic a t in g th a t tachnology i s being

conauaad f a s t e r than i t i s being gen era ted .
l o w S ta te Univ. 197)
Asms, l o w
 59

The am ount and c h a r a c te r is tic s of se d im e n t in su rfa c e runoff a r e

of co n c e rn when d eterm in in g n u trie n t loads in s t r e a m s , S e le c tiv e ly

eroded p a r tic le s a r e u su ally h ig h e r in o rg an ic m a tte r and n u trie n ts than

p a r tic le s not tr a n s p o r te d . The n itro g en in s o ils in the humid region is

contained a lm o s t e n tire ly in the o rg an ic m a tte r . S oil v a rie s fro m about

2 to 7 p e r cen t o rg an ic m a tte r; o rg a n ic m a tte r is ty p ically 5 p e r cen t

n itro g e n .

E x tre m e ly high lo s s e s of n itro g en and phosphorus have been r e ­

co rded in s e d i m e n t s , L o s s e s on land continuously in corn production

w e re a s high a s 66 l b s . / a c r e / y e a r to ta l n itro g e n , la rg e ly in se d im e n t.

P h o sp h o ru s lo s s e s app ro ached 1 1b / a c r e / y e a r . C ontrolling e ro s io n ,

encouraging w a te r in filtra tio n and w a te r sto ra g e w ill reduce n u trie n t and

oc;
p e stic id e lo s s from land .

Although m uch has been done in e ro sio n co n tro l w ork and o th e r land

tr e a tm e n t, the problem a s pointed out e a r l i e r is s till of m a jo r consequence

when w e look a t land u se planning p ro b le m s .

Iow a's C o nservancy D is tr ic t Law of 1971 fo r preventing e x c e ssiv e

s o il lo s s e s on all la n d s, is an a tte m p t to deal with th is problem through

, P . Jo h n so n , "E n g in eerin g S tu d ie s of Land C h a r a c te r is tic s

A pplicable to Land Use Planning and C o n tro l" , P a p e r p re se n te d at Land
U se Planning S e m in a r , ISU , A m e s, Iowa, 1973, p. 168.

E. B u rw e ll, R . F . H olt, D . R . T im m o n s, "L o ss of C rop

N u trie n ts T hrough R unoff," (M innesota S c ie n c e 24(4) : 1).

^^ Jo h n so n , E ngineering S tu d ie s , p . 168.
 60

regulations» The s u c c e s s o r effect of th is p ro g ram is not y e t known.

Does C o n serv atio n Pay?

Can an individual econo m ically co n tro l e ro sio n o r apply the nec­

e s s a r y land tre a tm e n t m e a s u r e s ? T h is question m u st , of c o u r s e , be

an sw ered b efo re we can expect an individual landow ner o r so c ie ty to m ake

land u se d e c is io n s . T h e re a r e m any c o n sid e ra tio n s w ith each situ a tio n

and land r e s o u rc e a r e a p re se n tin g d iffe re n t im p lic a tio n s. W heth er o r

not a c o n se rv a tio n p ro g ra m w ill prove p ro fitab le depends p rim a r ily on

the c o s ts of the p r o g ra m , the volum e of expected b e n e fits, the tim e p e r ­

iod th a t w ill e la p se b efo re th e s e b en efits can be r e a liz e d , and the d is ­

count r a te used in th e ir p r e s e n t v a l u a t i o n , B e y o n d those f a c to rs a r e

a lso s e v e ra l im p o rta n t ite m s such as:

1. d u ratio n of planning p e rio d ,

2. in v estm en t and d isin v e stm e n t of a s p e c ts of co n serv atio n plan,

3. choice of a lte rn a tiv e s a v a ila b le ,

4. and the o v e ra ll im p act of the p ro g ram on o th e r r e s o u r c e s .

F a r m e r s m ay choose between a v a rie ty of goals and p ra c tic e s when

they decide on land tre a tm e n t m e a s u r e s . They decide in a g e n e ral way

B arlo w e , Land R e so u rc e E c o n o m ics, (P re n tic e -H a ll, I n c .,

Englewood C liffs, New J e r s e y , 1 9 5 8 .), p. 304.

38lbid.
F igure 8 (Photo; Jefferson C o ., Icw a, 1973 by: John E ckes)
An exam ple of so il lo s s in e x c e s s of 20 tons per acre from Iowa cropland. Sedim ent load is
being deposited in highway road ditch.
 62

a s to w h eth er they w ant a p ro g ram th a t w ill build up th e ir s o il, m e re ly

m ain tain it a t its p re s e n t productive le v e l, o r p e rm it som e accep tab le

am ount of so il d e p le tio n . Once th is d ecisio n is m a d e , they can u su ally

decide between a lte rn a tiv e m ea n s of achieving the goal they have in m ind . 39

u.
oe 5 0
v>

2 40
o t s u m i n g t i p c c t c d ommwgl
soU l e t t t t o f :

3 30
Ik

»-
20
w 4 font
10

....................................... ' I
C M tM f Stripcfpptinf TarrtelAf

CONSEMVATION P K A C T i C g i

F ig u re 9
Use of indifference c u rv e s to illu s tr a te range of choices be­
tween a lte rn a tiv e m anagem ent p ro g ra m s av ailab le to individual
o p e ra to rs

T h is sim p le illu s tra tio n m igh t a lso be expanded to a com m unity

planning p r o c e s s , by su b stitu tin g d iffe re n t g o als and c r ite r ia in the in­

d iffe ren c e c u rv e .

CREDIT BASE

C re d it is tra d itio n a lly extended to u se land re s o u rc e s w ith the title

39 Ibid. , p . 308.

^^Ibid. (C h a rt rep ro d u ced w ith p e rm is s io n of P r e n tic e - H a ll, Inc .

 63

of land a s c o lla te r a l. C re d it is a pow erful tool in the developm ent and

exploitation of land r e s o u r c e s

By shifting fro m land a s c o lla te ra l to d e s ire d re s o u rc e use o b jectiv es

a s the b a sis f o r extending c re d it in the u se of land r e s o u r c e s , c re d it m ay

then becom e a tool f o r achieving d e s ire d land u s e s .

As n oted, the problem of e x te rn a litie s o r sp illo v e rs is one of the

m o st s e rio u s a sso c ia te d with re s o u rc e u s e . In granting c re d it on the

b a sis of d e s ire d land use o b je c tiv e s, it would be e x tre m ely im p o rta n t

w h ere e x te rn a litie s e x is t, and the b o rro w e r have a c c e s s to the benefits

42
he c r e a te s o v e r sp a c e and tim e . He would a ls o be resp o n sib le fo r any

e x te rn a l c o s ts he c r e a te s a s a condition f o r o r the re s u lt of using c r e d it.

P r e fe r e n tia l T axation

At le a s t n ineteen s ta te s have adopted s ta tu te s p erm ittin g tax incen­

tiv e s fo r open sp a c e to encou rag e p re s e rv a tio n of a g ric u ltu ra l la n d s, w et­

la n d s, f o r e s t lan d , and o th e r ty p es of undeveloped lan d . T ax es a r e c a l-

culated on ex istin g u se value r a th e r than potential developm ent v a lu e .

43

Land ta x e s seldom re fle c t the c u r re n t p ro d u ctiv itie s of land r e ­

s o u r c e s , which is the th e o ry behind annual land ta x e s . If the land tax

M cC o rm ack , T im m o n s, "M anaging N atural R e s o u r c e s ." p . 8.

"^^Ibid.
43
In stitu te f o r E nviro nm ental S tu d ie s , C onclusions and R ecom m end­
atio n s f o r S tre n g th e n e d S ta te Planning and M anagem ent in W isc o n sin , w ork­
ing p a p e r. No. 8, U of W , M adison, W isc o n sin , D ecem ber 1972, p. 57.
 64

is e x c e ssiv e re la tiv e to p ro d u c tiv ity , exploitation is encouraged in o r d e r

to pay c u r r e n t ta x e s even a t the expense of fu tu re p ro d u ctiv ity . If the

land tax is too low re la tiv e to p ro d u c tiv ity , the u s e r m ay re c e iv e a wind­

fall from exploitation.'^'^

T im m on s su g g e sts two fundam ental changes a p p e a r d e s ir a b le .

One change would be to d ro p com pletely land ta x e s fo r revenue p u rp o s e s ,

achieving rev enue in stead fro m incom e and cap ital gains tax es w hich

m o re n e a rly re f le c t c u r r e n t p ro d u ctiv ity and the v alues of r e s o u r c e s ,

A n oth er change would be to u se land ta x e s so le ly a s a m ean s of discoui—

aging o r encouraging the u se of land r e s o u r c e s in an accep tab le m a n n e r.

T a x e s f o r con trol and ta x e s f o r revenu e a r e in d ire c t c o n flic t. If

a d e s ire d land use is fo s te re d through ta x , reven ue is a d v e rse ly a ffe cte d .

S im ila r ly , if a tax is levied to d isc o u ra g e a p a r tic u la r u se , the revenu e

d e c r e a s e s a s the land u se objective is ach iev ed .

W hen th e re is a re lia n c e upon p ro p e rty tax es fo r a m a jo r s o u rc e

of local re v e n u e , no m a tte r how equitably a d m in is te re d , they have a

sig n ific a n t influence on land u se p a tte r n s , producing an econom ic p r e s s u r e

to develop lands in a way th a t w ill m a x im iz e econom ic p a t t e r n s . W h i l e

th e re has been a lm o s t no e m p iric a l r e s e a r c h re g a rd in g the im p act of

'^'^M cCormack, T im m o n s, "M anaging N atural R e so u rc e s" ,p . 8 .

46
B arlo w e , E c o n o m ics, p. 545.

'^^W isconsin, F in al R ep o rt - Land R e so u rc e s C o m m itte e , W a rre n

K now les, C h a irm a n , (M adison, W isc o n sin , 1973j, o. 61.
 65

S ta te s revenu e d istrib u tio n on land u s e , it is c le a r th at W isconsin s ta te

g o v ern m en t could sig n ifican tly influence local d ecision on land u se m a n ­

ag em en t through the way in which it d is trib u te s s ta te -c o lle c te d incom e

and s a le s tax rev en u es to local t r e a s u r ie s

F arn u m A lston concludes in h is study of p re fe re n tia l tax atio n in

W isco n sin th at p re fe re n tia l taxation is m o st effective when used in con­

ju nction w ith an extensiv e land u se plan "T he r a te at w hich p re s e n t

land u se c o n v ersio n s a re taking p lace and the re su ltin g so cial d is -e c o n o -

m ic s and co n flicts m ak es la n d -u se planning i m p e r a t i v e . P r e f e r e n t i a l

tcixation of a g ric u ltu ra l and open sp ace lands linked to sound land use

p lan s could be an effective tool f o r land u se c o n tro l.

Public P u rc h a s e (F ee o r E asem ent)

P r iv a te lands m a y , in so m e in s ta n c e s , be acq u ired to pro vide pub­

lic p a r k s , p ro te c t a r e a s of sp e c ia l s c ie n tific , h is to ric o r o th e r p ro te c tiv e

o b je ctiv e s such as a w a te rsh e d above a w a te r supply r e s e r v o i r .

An a lte rn a tiv e to p u rc h a se fee in te r e s ts is acq u isitio n of e a se m e n ts

f o r c e rta in u s e s . T h e se m ig h t include e a se m e n ts fo r flood c o n tro l, s c e n ic ,

c o n serv a n cy u se s and fu tu re w a te r supply s i t e s . T itle to th is land re m a in s

"^^Ibid.

'^^Farnum A lsto n , " P r e fe re n tia l T axation of A g ric u ltu ra l and Open

S p a ce Land: A P ro p o sa l F o r W isc o n sin " , p a p e r, U of W, M ad iso n , W is­
c o n sin , D e c . 1972, p . 27.

^^Ibid. ^ ^ I b id ., p . 28.
 66

w ith th e land w on er, but u s e s a r e r e s tr ic te d . E a se m e n ts a r e designed

to p e rm it the continued p riv a te ow nership and u se of lands su b je c t to

sp e c ifie d public r ig h ts .

C o sts a r e n o rm a lly c o n sid e ra b ly le s s than f o r a c q u isitio n , h o w ev er,

th ey m ay not be s a tis f a c to r y w h e re e a se m e n t m u st p ro h ib it a ll o r n e a rly

a ll s tr u c tu r a l use,® ^

P u b lic e a se m e n ts f o r c e r ta in p u rp o ses have proven v e ry s u c c e s sfu l

f o r m any public p u rp o s e s . S e v e ra l ex am p les a r e (1) W isco n sin sc e n ic

e a s e m e n ts along th e G r e a t R iv e r Road and e a se m e n ts s e c u re d on 200

m ile s of lake and r i v e r fro n ta g e and 9 ,0 0 0 a c r e s of w etland a t a fra c tio n

RO
of th e c o s t. (2) D e p a rtm en t of I n te r io r 's purchcise of s m a ll w etlan d s

in M innesota and the D akotas f o r duck h a b ita t. 500,000 a c r e s a r e c u r­

re n tly u n d e r è a se m e n t a t a c o s t of $ 1 1 .5 0 p e r a c r e , in p e rp e tu ity .

and (3) Flood c o n tro l s tr u c tu r e s ite e a se m e n ts a r e a lso obtained by so il

c o n se rv a tio n d i s t r i c t s . In m o s t c a s e s th e se e a se m e n ts a r e donated by

th e la n d o w n e rs.

E n v iro n m en tal C o n serv atio n T ax C re d it P ro g ra m

Can land u se p ro b le m s , such a s e x c e ssiv e so il e ro s io n be d e a lt

w ith in a m a n n e r su g g ested e a r l i e r , of charging f o r the rig h t to pollute?

^^E n v iro n m en tal S tu d ie s , P . 56.

^^A/. H . W hyte, T he L a s t L a n d sc a p e , (Doubleday & C o . , G arden

C ity , NY, 1968.) p . 105.

54
I b id ., p . 107.
 67

Q uality in the n a tu ra l re s o u rc e base is not n e c e s s a rily obtained by

design atin g and zoning c e rta in land u se s in a county o r regional land use

p la n . Q uality a lso eq u ates with m anagem ent and tre a tm e n t of th is land

u se.

Land u se planning is often co n sid ered com plete once the final de­

c isio n of u se is m ade and e n fo rc e d . Open sp ace fo r exam ple m ay not

pro vid e the d e s ire d so c ia l a m e n itie s a t a ll, if the land is m isu se d o r

poorly m a n a g e d .

If we a r e to obtain q u ality in th is re s o u rc e b a s e , we m u s t m ove

beyond the point of m e r e land u se desig nation to the final tre a tm e n t of

public e x te r n a litie s , such a s e ro s io n , pollution and o th e r land m is u s e s by

both p riv a te and public land u s e r s and m a n a g e rs .

An idea I feel m ay have som e m e r it and application to th is land u se

p ro b le m , is a p ro g ra m I w ill p re s e n t in b rie f fo rm . I call it the " E n v ir­

onm ental C o n serv atio n T ax C re d it P r o g r a m " .

T h is p ro g ra m is not e sta b lish e d on the d ir e c t p re m ise of charging

land ow ners f o r using o r dam aging a public r e s o u r c e , r a th e r it is r e ­

cognizing and com pensating land o w ners f o r land u se p ra c tic e s th at w ill

r e s u lt in public "g o o d s". In th is p r o c e s s , the e x te rn a l d is-e c o n o m ie s

a r e re c o g n iz e d , analyzed and t r e a t e d .

T h is p ro g ra m has s e v e ra l im p o rta n t advantages ov er ex istin g and

p a s t a g r ic u ltu r a l p r o g r a m s , fo r exam ple;

 68

1. A l l l a n d o w n e r s w o u ld b e in v o lv e d d i r e c t l y . E x istin g c o n s e r v a ­

t io n p r o g r a m s h a v e t r e a t e d a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f o u r r u r a l la n d ’s

s o i l and w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o b l e m s .

2. A s y s t e m a t i c f o l l o w - u p and m a i n t e n a n c e p r o g r a m i s e s t a b l i s h e d .

T h i s i s now a m a j o r p r o b l e m f a c i n g S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n D i s t r i c t s

w it h e x i s t i n g land t r e a t m e n t p r o g r a m s . It w o u ld p l a c e m o r e

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w ith th e l a n d o w n e r .

3. T h i s p r o g r a m w o u ld b e an i m p l e m e n t i n g to o l f o r t h e Iow a S o i l

C o n s e r v a n c y D i s t r i c t L a w o f 1 9 7 1 , and land u s e p la n s o f th e c i t y ,

c o u n t y , r e g i o n and s t a t e .

4. It w o u ld be b a s e d on a c o m p l e t e c o n s e r v a t i o n p lan f o r t h e m a n ­

a g e m e n t u n it .

5. T h e p r o g r a m w o u ld be c o m p a t a b l e and s e t up w ith th e C o r n

S u i t a b i l i t y R a tin g S y s t e m now in u s e by c o u n t i e s to a s s e s s land

in I o w a . T h e s a m e s o i l s u r v e y d a ta i s u s e d to e s t a b l i s h s o i l

l o s s l i m i t s and d e v e l o p th e r e s o u r c e p la n f o r a s p e c i f i c m a n a g e ­

m e n t u n it. T h e C S R p r o g r a m i s w o r k in g v e r y w e l l in c o - o p e r a ­

t io n w it h S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n D i s t r i c t s and th e C ou n ty B o a r d o f

^ ^ T h e C o r n S u i t a b i l i t y R a tin g ( C . S . R . ) i s a s y s t e m o f r a t i n g s o i l s
b a s e d on m a p p in g u n it s o f a S t a n d a r d S o i l S u r v e y , f o r land v a l u a t i o n and
a s s e s s m e n t . T h e r a t i n g s p r o v i d e a n in d e x f o r c o m p a r in g a l l s o i l m a p p in g
u n it s in t h e s t a t e . T h e C S R f o r a s o i l m a p p in g u n it r e f l e c t s th e i n t e g r a t e d
e f f e c t o f n u m e r o u s f a c t o r s th a t i n f l u e n c e t h e y i e l d p o te n t ia l and u s e f o r
ro w c r o p p r o d u c t io n a t a s p e c i f i e d m a n a g e m e n t l e v e l .
 69

S u p e r v iso r s, T e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e i s now p r o v id e d by S C S

and C o - o p e r a t i v e E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e , w h o w o r k d i r e c t l y w ith

cou n ty a s s e s s o r s .

6. A l a n d o w n e r ’s ta x b a s e w o u ld n o t b e r a i s e d a s a d i r e c t r e s u l t

o f e s t a b l i s h i n g p e r m a n e n t s o i l and w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n p r a c t i c e s

th a t d o p r o v i d e p u b lic b e n e f i t s . P r a c t i c e s o f t h i s n a tu r e a r e :

w i l d l i f e a r e a d e v e l o p m e n t , p o n d s and f lo o d o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l

s t r u c t u r e s , t e r r a c e s , r e - f o r e s t a t i o n and c r i t i c a l a r e a p l a n t i n g s .

P u b lic a c c e p ta n c e i s , o f c o u r s e , unknow n, h o w e v e r , this ap p roach

i s a r e a s o n a b l e s u b s t i t u t e f o r r e g u l a t i o n s w h i c h a r e n o t w e l l r e c e i v e d by

f a r m e r s and la n d o w n e r s o f I o w a .

E n v ir o n m e n ta l C o n s e r v a tio n T a x C r e d it P r o g r a m

A s y s t e m o f p r o v id in g " c o n s e r v a t i o n t a x c r e d i t s " to p r iv a t e la n d ­

o w n e r s ( a g r i c u l t u r a l ) in I o w a .

S o i l e r o s i o n i s n o t a d e q u a t e l y t r e a t e d on o v e r e i g h t m i l l i o n a c r e s

o f c r o p l a n d in Iowa U n p u b lis h e d s t u d i e s c o m p l e t e d by th e S o i l C o n ­

s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e on L a k e M c B r i d e and L a k e D a r l i n g w a t e r s h e d s in Iowa

in d ic a t e d r a t e s o f e r o s i o n in e x c e s s o f o n e h u n d r e d to n s p e r a c r e p e r

y e a r a s not u n c o m m o n and l o n g - t e r m a v e r a g e r a t e s a r e c o m m o n l y f i f ­

t e e n to t w e n t y t o n s p e r a c r e p e r y e a r . T he e ffe c ts of so il e r o s io n are

w e l l d o c u m e n t e d and h a v e a n a d v e r s e e f f e c t both on and o f f - s i t e . Off-

^^U SD A S o i l C o n s e r v a tio n S e r v i c e , C o n se r v a tio n N eed s In v en to ry ,

lo w a , 1970.
 70

s i t e " b a d s ” a r e in th e f o r m s o f p o llu t io n and s e d i m e n t a t i o n . A stu d y

c o n d u c t e d in 1 9 7 0 , e s t i m a t e d s e d i m e n t y i e l d s a p p r o a c h in g 6 , 0 0 0 t o n s

p e r s q u a r e m i l e in w e s t e r n I o w a .

T h e g o a l o f t h i s p r o g r a m i s to i m p r o v e th e c u r r e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l

la n d m a n a g e m e n t r e s o u r c e s y s t e m s , s o th a t t h e y p r o v i d e q u a lit y in o u r

r e s o u r c e b a s e , e n v i r o n m e n t and s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g . U nder th is c o n c e p t

a la n d o w n e r i s a l l o w e d t a x c r e d i t s f o r a p p ly in g c e r t a i n c o n s e r v a t i o n p r a c ­

t i c e s and m a i n t a i n i n g a p r e s c r i b e d land u s e and s t a n d a r d s a s s e t f o r t h in

a s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n d i s t r i c t lan d u s e p l a n , d e v e l o p e d f o r t h is land u n i t .

T h e b a s i c and f i r s t r e q u i r e m e n t w o u ld b e e r o s i o n c o n t r o l at o r be le w

e s t a b l i s h e d a l l o w a b l e s o i l l o s s l i m i t s , c u r r e n t l y a d o p te d by e a c h s o i l c o n ­

se r v a tio n d is tr ic t.

T h e p r o g r a m w o u ld b e a d m i n i s t e r e d j o i n t l y by th e C o u n ty B o a r d o f

S u p e r v i s o r s and t h e S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n D i s t r i c t C o m m i s s i o n e r s . Tech­

n i c a l r e s o u r c e s a r e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e at th e c o u n t y l e v e l to p r o v i d e th e

n e c e s s a r y p la n n in g an d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s . The D i s t r i c t h a s

t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e a v a i l a b l e f r o m U S D A a g e n c i e s s u c h a s th e S o i l C o n ­

se r v a tio n S e r v i c e , C o -o p E x te n sio n S e r v i c e , F a r m e r s H om e A d m in is tr a ­

t i o n , A g r i c u l t u r e S t a b i l i z a t i o n and C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e , F o r e s t S e r v i c e ,

and Io w a C o n s e r v a t i o n C o m m i s s i o n . T h e C o u n ty B o a r d o f S u p e r v i s o r s

w o u ld u t i l i z e t h e i r a s s e s s o r s and e n g i n e e r i n g o f f i c e s . A sp e c ia l d istr ic t

r e s o u r c e c o m m i t t e e c o u ld b e o r g a n i z e d to c o - o r d i n a t e th e t e c h n i c a l

a ssista n ce n e c e ssa r y .
 71

T e c h n i c a l p e o p l e w o u ld a s s i s t la n d o w n e r s in d e v e l o p i n g la n d u s e

and t r e a t m e n t p la n s f o r t h e i r s p e c i f i c la n d m a n a g e m e n t u n it o r f a r m .

P l a n s d e v e l o p e d w o u ld i m p l e m e n t c o u n t y , r e g i o n a l , and s t a t e la n d u s e

p la n o b j e c t i v e s and g o a l s .

L a n d o w n e r s w o u ld q u a l i f y f o r c o n s e r v a t i o n t a x c r e d i t s a s t h e y now

d o u n d e r t h e Iow a W o o d la n d an d F r u i t - T r e e R e s e r v a t i o n L aw ( C h a p t e r 161

a n d 441 o f t h e Iow a C o d e ) . It w i l l r e q u i r e l e g i s l a t i v e a c t i o n to r e v i s e th e

current la w .

T h e f o l l o w i n g i t e m s m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d u n d e r th e c o n c e p t s o f t h i s

program :

1. R e d u c t io n o f s o i l l o s s l i m i t s a s s e t f o r t h in t h e Iow a C o n s e r ­

v a n c y D i s t r i c t A c t o f 1 9 7 1 , and th e U n i v e r s a l S o i l L o s s E q u a ­

t io n l i m i t s . S o il l o s s w o u ld be m e a s u r e d fo r ea ch s o il r e s o u r c e

a r e a , a s d e p i c t e d by a S t a n d a r d S o i l S u r v e y p u b l is h e d b y t h e

U . S . S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e and Iow a A g r i c u l t u r a l and H o m e

E c o n o m ic E x p e r im e n t S ta tio n . The s o il lo s s r eq u ir em en t m u st

b e m e t b e f o r e a n y o t h e r c r e d i t s w o u ld a p p l y .

2 . O t h e r p o s s i b l e la n d u s e s and p r a c t i c e s th a t m a y be c o n s i d e r e d

are:

(a ) W i l d l i f e a r e a s , w o o d l a n d , s c e n i c o r u n iq u e a r e a s , r e c r e a ­

t io n a r e a s , f e e d l o t p o llu t io n c o n t r o l .

(b) A l l o w i n g p u b l ic a c c e s s o r g iv i n g a s p e c i a l land u s e p e r m i t ,

(c) S p e c i a l u s e a r e a s , s u c h a s f u t u r e c o n t r o l s i t e s , la n d f i l l
 72

s ite s , etc.

T o t a l c r e d i t s e a r n e d , f o r e x a m p l e , m a y a m o u n t to o n e - h a l f o f th e

actu al com p u ted tax b a s e p e r a c r e . C u r r e n t v a l u e o f lan d in E a s t C e n t r a l

Iow a r a n g e s f r o m $ 4 0 5 to $ 8 9 5 p e r a c r e . ^ ^ A ctu a l com puted tax p e r a c r e

w o u ld v a r y a c c o r d i n g to r a t e o f l e v y p e r t o w n s h i p . A c t u a l t a x e s p aid p e r

a c r e , f o r e x a m p l e , now r a n g e s f r o m $ 1 2 t o $ 2 0 .

A l a n d o w n e r m u s t a g r e e to m a in t a in o r k e e p h i s p lan in f o r c e f o r

a t l e a s t f i v e y e a r s and in m o s t c a s e s l o n g e r . T h e S o il C o n ser v a tio n

D i s t r i c t w o u ld c e r t i f y s o i l l o s s and a s s i s t l a n d o w n e r s w ith p la n n in g and

c o n se r v a tio n p r a c tic e a p p lic a tio n . S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n D i s t r i c t s w o u ld a l s o

a s s i s t c o u n t y a s s e s s o r s w it h p la n m a i n t e n a n c e and r e v i e w t h e p r o g r a m .

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t a x l e v y and a s s e s s m e n t w o u ld be h a n d le d by th e c o u n t y

a s s e s s o r s o f f i c e ; th e c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o g r a m w o u ld be a d m i n i s t e r e d by th e

S o il C o n se r v a tio n D is t r ic t ,

C o s t s in t e r m s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and a c t u a l t a x d o l l a r l o s s w o u ld

p o s e an i m m e d i a t e p r o b l e m to c o u n t y s u p e r v i s o r s and c o m m i s s i o n e r s .

H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e c u r r e n t l y s e v e r a l p r o g r a m s a v a i l a b l e to a s s i s t :

1. F e d e r a l r e v e n u e s h a r i n g c o u ld b e u s e d to o f f - s e t th e i n i t i a l

revenue lo s s . L o n g run b e n e f i t s o f th e p r o g r a m h o w e v e r , w o u ld

b e e c o n o m i c a l l y s o u n d and m o r e than p ay th e c o s t s .

^ ^ L an d V a l u e S u r v e y c o n d u c t e d by Iow a S t a t e U n i v e r i s t y , ( N o v . , 1 9 7 3 )
 73

2. S t a t e and f e d e r a l c o s t s h a r i n g p r o g r a m s a r e a v a i l a b l e to la n d ­

o w n e r s fo r in itia l in s ta lla tio n of p r a c t ic e s .

3, O ther s o u r c e s o f funds m a y b e c o m e a v a ila b le a s th e p r o g r a m

is ad op ted .

L an d ow n er P a r tic ip a tio n

L a n d o w n e r s w o u ld b e f a c e d w it h a d e c i s i o n to p la n and u s e t h e i r

la n d w i t h in p r e s c r i b e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t a n d a r d s o r p a y th e c o s t s o f h i g h e r

ta x es.

T h e c o s t o f h o ld in g a c u b i c y a r d o f s o i l on th e lan d by s o i l c o n s e i—

v a t i o n m e a s u r e s i s a f r a c t i o n o f th e c o s t s o f d r e d g in g r e s e r v o i r s , c h a n n e l s

and r ep a irin g e r o s io n d a m a g e s . E r o s i o n th a t p r o d u c e s s e d i m e n t c a n be

r e d u c e d up t o 9 0 p e r c e n t b y s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n p r a c t i c e s w it h o u t c h a n g in g

m a t e r i a l l y t h e b a s i c a g r i c u l t u r a l p a tt e r n .^ ®

T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o n s e r v a t i o n T a x C r e d i t P r o g r a m w o u ld c o m ­

p e n s a t e a l a n d o w n e r f o r th e p o s i t i v e e x t e r n a l i t i e s c r e a t e d b y g o o d land

u s e and s o i l s t e w a r d s h i p . It w o u ld a l s o p r o v id e an e c o n o m i c i n c e n t i v e

f o r a ll l a n d o w n e r s to p r a c t i c e and m a i n t a i n g o o d s o i l m a n a g e m e n t .

S o il C o n se r v a tio n D is t r ic t s h ave d e m o n str a te d fo r m a n y y e a r s

th a t a s o u n d p r o g r a m p r o p e r l y a d m i n i s t e r e d by r a t i o n a l , i n f o r m e d and

i n v o lv e d p e o p l e w i l l b e e f f e c t i v e .

^ ^ U S D A , S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e , S e d i m e n t , A g r i c u l t u r e I n fo r ­
m a t i o n B u l l e t i n N o . 3 2 5 , G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , W a s h in g t o n D . C . ,
1967, p. 15.
F ig u re 10 (Photo: S u m m e r, 1973, J e f fe r s o n C ounty, lova)
by S ta n le y S im m ons
An exam ple of a land ow n er’s d e c isio n to m anage h is land w ithout so c ia l c o s t o r s p illo v e r s .
E ro sio n c o n tro lle d w ith ap p licatio n of tile outlet t e r r a c e s . E stim a te d so il lo s s fro m th is field
u n d er continuous cropping s y s te m , is u n d e r 1 /2 ton p e r a c r e p e r y e a r . E x te rn a litie s of th is field
a r e now p r im a rily p ositive: high p ro d u ctio n , clean s tr e a m s , q u ality w a te rs h e d , land h a s g r e a te r
u tility , good fish p roduction in ponds and s tr e a m s , sed im en tatio n is co n tro lle d and to o , it m ay
even be a sth e tic a lly ap p e a lin g . P u b lic ro ad d itc h e s a r e f r e e of siltin g ( le s s m ain ten an ce c o s ts .)
 C H A P T E R VII

TH E C IT IZ E N R O L E A N D A C C E P T A N C E OF A L A N D U S E P O L IC Y

W h ile lan d u s e p la n n in g i s a p p e a l i n g , i t s a c c e p t a n c e by th e p u b lic

in p r a c t i c e r e m a i n s p r o b l e m a t i c a l . E f f e c t i v e p la n n in g w ill r e q u i r e m a j o r

r e v i s i o n o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d land u s e p r a c t i c e s and m a n a g e m e n t p o l i c i e s . ^

A m a j o r o b s t a c l e to e f f e c t i v e p la n n in g is that it s e e k s i m p l e m e n t a ­

tio n in a s o c i e t y in w h ic h n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e c o n f l i c t s a r e p r e v a l e n t and o f

an in t e n s i f y i n g c h a r a c t e r . Land u s e p la n n in g p r o b l e m s m a y b e m o r e in

th e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l s p h e r e th an t e c h n i c a l . W e m a y be f a c e d w it h a "no

t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n p r o b l e m ”^ w h i c h w i l l r e q u i r e f a r r e a c h i n g c h a n g e s in

h u m a n v a l u e s and in e s t a b l i s h e d r e s o u r c e m a n a g m e n t p r a c t i c e s .

P u b li c p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e land u s e p la n n in g and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o ­

c e s s w i l l be th e c r i t i c a l f a c t o r in th e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e o f t h i s e n t i r e m o v e -

m e n t . ^ T h i s m e a n s c i t i z e n i n v o l v e m e n t a t th e p r o b le m d e f in it i o n s t a g e ,

c o n tin u e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n and d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n a g e n c i e s , a g e n c y p e r s o n ­

n el and d ata r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e at th e lo c a l l e v e l .

^G ordon L . B u l t e n a , " S t u d i e s o f P u b l i c P r e f e r e n c e s and G r o u p

I n t e r a c t i o n s T o G u id e Land U s e P la n n in g and C o n trol" , P a p e r p r e s e n t e d
at L an d U s e P la n n in g S e m i n a r , I S U , A m e s , I o w a , A u g u s t , 1 9 7 3 , p . 351
2
H a r d in ,T r a d e g y , p. 1246.

^ U . S . C o n g r e s s S e n a t e B i l l , Land U s e P o l i c y and P la n n i n g A s ­
s is t a n c e (S 2 6 8 , 93rd C o n g r e s s , 1st s e s s i o n , 1 973),
 76

A s a p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k in g f o r t h e U . S . S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e ,

I f e e l a ll a g e n c i e s to be i n v o lv e d w ith th e lan d u s e p lan n in g progranri s h o u ld

a s k t h e m s e l v e s w it h v e r y s i n c e r e s e l f - a n a l y s i s : w h o m o s t n e e d s a d j u s t in g ?

S h o u ld c i t i z e n ’s v a l u e s and b e h a v i o r b e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a lt e r e d to f it th e

e s t a b l i s h e d g o a l s o f p u b lic a g e n c i e s , o r s h o u ld p u b lic a g e n c i e s i n s t e a d ,

be r e n o v a t e d o r c h a n g e d s o t h e y a r e m o r e r e s p o n s i v e in t h e i r p r o g r a m m i n g

to e m e r g e n t p u b lic p r e f e r e n c e s . ^

M o r e o v e r , w h i l e e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g m u s t be b a s e d on

th e b e s t a v a i l a b l e s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l in f o rn a t i o n , a v a l u e j u d g ­

m en t— a s o c ia l d e c is io n — is u ltim a te ly r e q u ir e d . S o c ia l d e c is io n s m u st

r e f l e c t th e p u b lic w i l l , f o r th e e n v i r o n m e n t b e lo n g s to the p u b l i c , not j u s t

to th e " e x p e r t s ” in th e g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c y o r in d u s t r y i m m e d i a t e l y in ­

v o l v e d in a p a r t i c u l a r d e c i s i o n . W h en r i s k s m u s t be m e a s u r e d a g a i n s t

b e n e f i t s , w h e n e c o n o m i c and e n v i r o n m e n t a l v a l u e s m u s t be w e i g h e d and

b a l a n c e d , th e p u b lic h a s th e r i g h t and th e o b lig a t i o n to m a k e i t s v i e w s

known and in m a n y c a s e s a c t u a l l y m a k e th e d e c i s i o n th ro u g h a v o t e .

" T o put it s u c c i n c t l y , th e p u b lic w a n t s a b ig s h a r e in land u s e p la n ­

n in g d e c i s i o n s . B e c a u s e th e p u b lic p a y s th e b i l l , p e o p le a r e d e t e r m i n e d

th a t th e p r o d u c t t h e y buy s h a l l m e e t t h e i r n e e d s . ”®

^ B u l t e n a , S t u d i e s o f P u b l i c P r e f e r e n c e s , p. 3 7 0 .

®U . S . , E P A , D o n ’t L e a v e It A l l T o T h e E x p e r t s , U . S . G o v e r n ­
m e n t P rin tin g O ffic e , N o v . , 1 9 7 2 , p . 3 .

^ L o i s S h a r p e , " C i t i z e n ’s R o l e in Land U s e P l a n n i n g ” , L e a g u e o f
W o m e n V o t e r s , P a p e r p r e s e n t e d at S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n S o c i e t y o f A m e r i c a
C o n fe r e n c e , D e s M o in e s, Iow a, 1973, p. 127.
 77

P u b l i c s u p p o r t c a n o n ly be e x p e c t e d a f t e r t h e y a r e a m e a n in g f u l p a r t o f

th e p la n n in g p r o c e s s , if t h e y a r e n ot in v o lv e d c h a n c e s a r e t h e y w i l l e v e n ­

tu a lly b e c o m e c r i t i c s .

W ith o u t p u b lic s u p p o r t , no e n v i r o n m e n t i m p r o v e m e n t p r o ­
g r a m c a n s u c c e e d . P e o p l e h a v e b e e n and s t i l l a r e the o n ly
c o n s t i t u e n c y f o r c l e a n w a t e r , c l e a n a i r , im p r o v e d s o l i d w a s t e
d i s p o s a l , and u s e o f lan d in th e p u b lic i n t e r e s t . C i t i z e n s m a y
n o t h a v e th e e a r o f th e C o m m e r c e o r I n t e r i o r D e p a r t m .e n t s o r
th e W h ite H o u s e staffC but c i t i z e n s h a v e th e v o t e — and t h e y i n ­
te n d to h a v e a v o i c e .

W h a t i s p u b lic o r c i t i z e n i n v o l v e m e n t in land u s e p la n n in g ? W h en

s h o u l d t h e y b e c o m e in v o lv e d ? How d o th ey c o n t r ib u t e s o m e t h i n g s o m e ­

th in g o r w h a t c a n u n t r a in e d c i t i z e n s o f f e r to a c o m p l i c a t e d lan d u s e p lan ?

I s n ’t t h e p u b lic g e n e r a l l y d i s i n t e r e s t e d u n til th e p r o b le m is n e a r c r i s i s

m a g n it u d e ? T h e s e q u e s t i o n s a r e not e a s i l y a n s w e r e d , but c e r t a i n l y d e ­

s e r v e th o r o u g h c o n s i d e r a t i o n b y a ll p r o f e s s i o n a l r e s o u r c e p l a n n e r s . Pro­

f e s s i o n a l p l a n n e r s c o n c e r n e d w it h p r i v a t e land p la n n in g r e a l l y d o n ’t m a k e

land u s e d e c i s i o n s , th e p e o p le d o . T h e p r o f e s s i o n a l ’s p r i m a r y j o b i s to

p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n , r e s o u r c e d a ta and p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s to a p r o ­

b le m .

A m a j o r s h o r t - c o m i n g o f land u s e p la n n in g , p a s t and p r e s e n t is

th e i n a b i l i t y o f th e p r o f e s s i o n a l p l a n n e r s t o w o r k w ith p e o p le and g e t tliem

i n v o lv e d in th e e n t i r e p la n n in g p r o c e s s . It d o e s ta k e t i m e , p a t i e n c e ,

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and an e f f e c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n o r p la n n in g s t r u c t u r e th at

^ I b id .
 78

a l l o w s p e o p le to h a v e an input and v o i c e lo n g b e f o r e a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e

d ev elo p e d .

P r o f e s s o r A r n o ld B o l l e c o m m e n t e d a lo n g t h e s e s a m e li n e s :

T h e p r o f e s s i o n a l h a s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to p r o v id e the p u b lic
w ith b a s i c in f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d to u d n e r s ta n d p r o b l e m s and to
r e c o g n i z e w h a t i s i n v o lv e d in th e d e c i s i o n s th at a r e m a d e . O n c e
th e p u b lic h a s s e t i t s g o a l s , th e p r o f e s s i o n a l c a n h e lp by a p p ly ­
ing t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s in th e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e s e g o a l s . U n l e s s
th e p r o f e s s i o n a l i s w i l l i n g to a s s u m e t h is r o l e a s a c o n t r ib u t o r
to th e s o c i a l p r o c e s s and h e n c e to s o c i e t y , th e p r o f e s s i o n a l
m a y w e l l be o n e o f s o c i e t y ’s m a j o r p r o b l e m s

O p p o r tu n ity f o r c i t i z e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n r e q u i r e s m o r e than i n e o n s p ic ou:

a n n o u n c e m e n t s in a n e w s p a p e r o r an in v it a t io n a w e e k b e f o r e a m e e t i n g ,

u n a c c o m p a n ie d by e v e n th e m i n i m u m o f n e e d e d i n f o r m a t i o n . O p p o r tu n ity

f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n m e a n s m o r e th a n a c h a n c e to r e a c t to a c h o i c e a l r e a d y

m a d e by s o m e o n e e l s e , e s p e c i a l l y a g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c y o r p la n n in g c o m ­

m issio n .

P e o p l e m u s t b e in v o lv e d in th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p o l i c y and f o r m u l a ­

t io n o f a l t e r n a t i v e s . F o r e x a m p l e , c i t i z e n s s h o u ld be;

a. m a d e p a r t o f t h e e a r l i e s t p la n n in g p r o c e s s e s by w o r k in g

w ith th e p la n n in g u n it on e v a l u a t i o n o f p la n n in g g o a ls and

d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e n e e d f o r i n f o r m a t i o n ,

b. u s e d to g a t h e r , a s s e m b l e and a n a l y z e d a t a ,

c . c o n s u l t e d on l e g i s l a t i v e n e e d s .

^Arnold W. Bolle, ’’Public P a rtic ip atio n and Environmental Quality",

(Natural R e s o u r c e s J o u r n a l : 11, (University of New Mexico, July 1971),
p. 501 .
 79

d. c o n s u l t e d in d r a f t i n g , a d o p tio n and e n f o r c e m e n t o f s t a n d a r d s

and r e g u l a t i o n s f o l l o w i n g e n a c t m e n t of s t a t e l e g i s l a t i o n . ^

T h e r e i s a t r e m e n d o u s jo b in a c i t i z e n i n f o r m a t io n and e d u c a t io n

p r o g r a m to be d o n e in a ll a r e a s o f c o n c e r n . T h i s e d u c a t io n p r o c e s s m u s ’:

b e c o n t in u o u s and c o m p l e t e b e f o r e a m e a n in g f u l p lan n in g p r o c e s s c a n ts-ike

p la c e . "W ho i s e d u c a t e d ? T h e a n s w e r i s th e c l i e n t e l e , the p la n n e r h i m ­

s e l f , m e m b e r s o f th e d e c i s i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , and s e g m e n t

o f th e p u b lic at l a r g e . P r o b a b l y th e g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t s o b ta in e d f r o m p la n ­

n in g a r e th e e d u c a t io n a l o n e s ^^

A s c i t i z e n s ' u n d e r s ta n d in g b r o a d e n s and w h e r e c i t i z e n s p a r t i c i p a t e

t h r o u g h o u t th e f u ll c o u r s e o f lan d u s e p la n n in g and p o lic y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ,

c i t i z e n o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i l l m o v e b ey o n d t h e i r p resen t: c r i s i s o r i e n t e d

a c tio n s. B e c a u s e a d j u s t m e n t o f c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s w ill t a k e p l a c e all

a lo n g th e w a y , l a s t m i n u t e c o n f r o n t a t i o n s w i l l b e f e w e r .

L in d b lo m d i s c u s s e s an a p p l i c a b l e d e c i s i o n m, a king p r o c e s s c a l l e d

" s u c c e s s i v e l i m i t e d c o m p a r i s o n s " ( B r a n c h m e t h o d ) w h ic h i s b a s i c a l l y

a p r o c e s s o f m a k in g d e c i s i o n s o n e s t e p a t a t i m e , and a v o id s "big ju m p s "

at a g o a l , and p r o c e e d s o n ly a f t e r a g r e e m e n t i s r e a c h e d and th e d e c i s i o n

^ S h a r p , C itiz e n 's R o le , p. 130.

L . D r i v e r , " S o m e T h o u g h t s on P l a n n i n g , T h e P l a n n i n g P r o ­
c e s s and R e l a t e d D e c i s i o n P r o c e s s " , P a p e r p r e s e n t e d at th e U n i v e r s i t y
o f M ic h ig a n , p . 2 0 6 .
 80

i s t e s t e d . ^ ^ T h i s a p p e a r s to b e a s o u n d and l o g i c a l m e t h o d , e s p e c i a l l y

a p p l i c a b l e to th e lan d u s e p la n n in g f r a m e w o r k o f d e c i s i o n m a k i n g .

It a p p e a r s t h i s p r o b l e m w i l l c o n t in u e in s p i t e o f the w e l l m e a n i n g

a g e n c y ’s d e s i r e to in v o l v e p e o p l e , u n til t h e y u n d e r s t a n d it r e q u i r e s s o m e

t y p e o f a c o o r d i n a t e d and o r g a n i z e d p la n n in g p r o c e s s d e s i g n e d by th e c i t i z e n s

th e m se lv e s.

T h i s c i t i z e n o r g a n i z a t i o n m u s t b e in a p o s i t i o n t o h a v e a c c e s s to

a l l i n f o r m a t i o n , be a b l e to s o l i c i t e i n t e r e s t g r o u p p a r t i c i p a t i o n and v i e w s

p lu s a u t h o r i t y to i n i t i a t e a c t i o n . A n a g e n c y m u s t t h e n r e a l i z e it i s t h is

g r o u p th a t m a k e s th e d e c i s i o n s .

T h e s o u n d n e s s o f t h e s e d e c i s i o n s w i l l th e n p a r t i a l l y d e p e n d on how

w e l l r e s o u r c e a g e n c i e s h a v e p r o v id e d a c c u r a t e , t i m e l y , and a d e q u a t e

in fo r m a tio n .

T o t h i s p o in t w e h a v e in d ic a t e d th e n e e d f o r p u b lic p a r t i c i p a t i o n and

w h y c i t i z e n s s h o u ld b e i n v o l v e d .

W i l l i a m F o l k m a n c o n c l u d e s in h i s p a p e r on p u b lic i n v o l v e m e n t , th a t

t o d a t e , no p u b lic a g e n c y h a s d e v e l o p e d an e n t i r e l y s u c c e s s f u l p r o c e d u r e

f o r in v o lv in g th e p u b l i c , e v e n thou gh an o p e n n e s s and w i l l i n g n e s s to c h a n g e

1P
i s a p p a r e n t on th e p a r t o f p u b lic a g e n c i e s o

E . L i n d b l o m , ’’T h e S c i e n c e o f M u d d lin g T h r o u g h ” , P u b l i c
A d m in is tr a tio n R e v ie w , 19 , B o b b s & M e r r il c o , , In d ia n a p o lis, I n d .,
(1959).

S. F o l k m a n , ” P u b l i c I n v o lv e m e n t in th e D e c i s i o n - M a k i n g
P r o c e s s o f N a tu r a l R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t A g e n c i e s ” , ( P u b l i c A f f a i r s
P a p e r N o . 3 , U n iv . of W a s h ., S e a t t l e , W a s h ., J u n e , 1973), p . 2 4 .
 81

F o l k m a n m a y be c o r r e c t in h i s f in a l a y a l y s i s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e

e x a m p l e s o f p u b lic a g e n c i e s w o r k in g w ith p e o p le th at h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d

r e a so n a b le s u c c e s s f u l r e s u lt s . T h e R e s o u r c e C o n s e r v a t i o n and D e v e l o p ­

m e n t P r o j e c t s s p o n s o r e d b y S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n D i s t r i c t s and o t h e r l o c a l

u n it s o f g o v e r n m e n t a s s i s t e d b y v a r i o u s U S D A s t a t e and l o c a l g r o u p s , h a v e

h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d r e a s o n a b l y w e l l th a t p e o p l e c a n be i n v o l v e d , w i l l m a k e

g o o d d e c i s i o n s , and m o v e f a r b e y o n d c r i s i s o r i e n t e d a c t i o n .

T h e r e a r e no h a r d -a n d -fa s t " b e s t” p r o c e d u r e s f o r s tr u c tu r in g

p u b lic p a r t i c i p a t i o n . T h o s e a r r a n g e m e n ts w h ich w ill w ork m o s t e f fe c t­

i v e l y d e p e n d to a g r e a t e x t e n t on th e s p e c i f i c s o f a g iv e n s i t u a t i o n , f o r

e x a m p l e , th e f o c u s and s c o p e o f th e p la n n in g e f f o r t ; t h e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l ­

a b l e to p l a n n e r s ; t h e h i s t o r y and p r o b l e m s o f th e a r e a ; and t h e t y p e s of

a r e a c i v i c and i n t e r e s t g r o u p s th a t a r e a c t i v e , a lo n g w ith th e d e g r e e of

i m p o r t a n c e t h e y a t t r i b u t e to t h e p la n n in g e f f o r t s .

K. P , W a rn e r s u g g e s t s th e r e a r e a num ber of d e s c r ip tiv e d im e n ­

s i o n s th a t c a n b e a p p lie d w h e n d i s c u s s i n g t e c h n i q u e s f o r p u b lic p a r t i c i ­

p a tio n . A m ong th e se are:

1. T h e s c o p e and s p e c i f i c i t y o f f o c u s , f o r e x a m p l e : how m a n y

p e o p l e and w h a t t y p e s o f p e o p l e c a n be c o n t a c t e d ,

2. T h e d e g r e e to w h i c h a g i v e n t y p e o f m e c h a n i s m i n v o l v e s

o n e -w a y v e r s u s tw o -w a y c o m m u n ic a tio n of in fo r m a tio n .

3 . T h e d e g r e e to w h i c h th e m e c h a n i s m a s s u m e s a g e n c y i n i t i a ­

t i v e f o r a c t i o n , p u b lic p a r t i c i p a n t i n i t i a t i v e f o r a c t i o n , o r a
 IN Irez i LANNITX; Fr.OJcJJ WI TH rUBLlT INVDLvT.: _: : . T F L WW. l v : : 4 L Oi< l E N T A T I ON W I N r i C A T - E L

[Circled code letters indicate the primary functional e m p h a s i s ; additional letters indicate very
important secondary functional orieatation(s)]

DEFINE GOALS AND DETAILED STUDIES IDENTIFICATION OF

OBJECTIVES AND DATA COLLECTION ALTERNATIVES

EVALUATION OF CHOICE AMCNiG FINAL PLAN

ALTERNATIVES ALTERNATIVES AND PRESENTATION
PLAN RECOMMENDATIWS

Figure 11. Code fo r Flow Diagram Functional O rien ta tio n s D esignations

A - I n f o r m a t i o n a l / E d u c a t i o n a l ( I n f o rm in g )
B - R e a c t i o n / R e sp o n se (F e e d b a c k )
C - I n t e r a c t i o n / D i a l o g u e ( I n f o r m a ti o n a l E xchange)

S o u rc e ! K .P . E a r n e r , " P u b lic P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n E a t e r R e so u rc e P la n n in g "

P i n a l r e p o r t U n i v e r s i ty o f M ic h ig a n , Ann A rb o r, M ichigan
J u ly ,
 83

m i x t u r e o f b o th ,

4. T h e p la n n in g a g e n c i e s r e s o u r c e s (in t e r m s o f fu n d s and

s t a f f t i m e c o m m i t m e n t s ) w h i c h a r e r e q u ir e d f o r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n

o f e a c h . ^^

T h e p u b l ic s w it h w h i c h a land u s e p lan n in g a g e n c y w i l l be œ r n m u n i -

c a t in g a r e d i v e r s e both in t e r m s o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t in and in f o r m a t i o n ab ou t

la n d u s e p la n n in g and i n t e r m s o f t h e i r o p e n n e s s to v a r i o u s c h a n n e l s o f

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , a p u b lic p a r t i c i p a t i o n p r o g r a m in o r d e r to be e f f e c t i v e

w i l l h a v e to in c lu d e a v a r i e t y o f a c t i v i t i e s . ^^

T h e f o l l o w i n g p o in t s a r e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s th a t m ig h t be c o n s i d e r e d

f o r e f f e c t i v e p u b lic i n v o l v e m e n t in th e land u s e p la n n in g p r o c e s s :

1. It i s im p o r t a n t in f o r m a t i o n be m a d e a v a i l a b l e e a r l y and

th r o u g h o u t p la n n in g s t u d i e s u n d e r ta k e n by a g e n c i e s . Such

in f o r m a t io n c a n le a d to g r e a t e r p u b lic u n d e r s t a n d in g and

in te r e st. T h e s e tw o f a c t o r s a r e c i r t i c a l f o r e f f e c t i v e c i t ­

iz e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

2 . E f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t o r y p la n n in g w i l l r e q u i r e an i n c r e a s e d

c o m m i t m e n t o f r e s o u r c e s on th e p a r t o f p la n n in g a g e n c i e s ,

in c lu d in g s t a f f , fu n d s and s u p p o r t m a t e r i a l s .

3 . S t a f f t r a i n i n g w i l l be n e c e s s a r y . M o r e f r e q u e n t and d i r e c t

P . W a r n e r , P u b l i c P a r t i c i p a t i o n in W a t e r R e s o u r c e P la n n i n g
F i n a l R e p o r t , S c h o o l o f N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s , U o f M , Ann A r b o r , M i c h ­
ig a n , (1 9 7 1 ). p . 8 .

14
I b id .
 84

c o n t a c t s w it h th e p u b lic w i l l r e q u i r e , in a d d itio n to the

t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s o f d a ta a n a l y s i s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a g r e a t ­

e r f a c i l i t y in i n t e r p r e t i n g p e o p l e ’s o p in io n s and r e a c t i o n s .

P l a n n e r s m u s t be a b le to a s k ’’m e a n in g f u l q u e s t i o n s ” a n d ,

in t u r n , r e s p o n d e f f e c t i v e l y to q u e s t i o n s and d e m a n d s .

4 . P o s s i b l y m e a s u r e s s h o u l d b e in s t i t u t e d to p r o v id e s u p p o r t

to t h o s e p u b l i c s w h o e v i d e n c e a w i l l i n g n e s s t o c o m m i t t i m e

and e f f o r t to v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s . F o r ex a m p le , a sy ste m of

p r o v id in g c i t i z e n r e i n b u r s e m e n t f o r the e x p e n s e i n c u r r e d

d i r e c t l y a s a r e s u l t o f p la n n in g in p u t . E lig ib ility sta n d a r d s

and p e r f o r m a n c e c r i t e r i a w o u l d , o f c o u r s e , h a v e to b e e s t a b ­

lish e d .

5 . I n c r e a s e d u s e s h o u ld be m a d e o f c o l l e g e and u n i v e r s i t y f a c ­

i l i t i e s and r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m s .
1
6 . T h e r e i s a l s o a n e e d f o r p u b lic p a r t i c i p a t i o n r e s e a r c h .

A q u e s t i o n a i r e s u r v e y s e n t to 2 2 7 p u b lic p la n n in g g r o u p s a s k e d

t h e m to r a n k , in t e r m s o f t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s , t h o s e i n v o l v e m e n t m e c h a n ­

i s m s w h i c h had b e e n found u s e f u l in c o n n e c t i o n w ith p la n n in g a c t i v i t i e s .

T h e t h r e e m o s t h ig h ly w e i g h t e d w e r e :

1. C i t i z e n a d v i s o r y b o a r d s ,

2 . I n f o r m a l c o n t a c t s w ith l o c a l o f f i c i a l s and c i t i z e n s .

p. 9.
 85

3. P u b lic m e e tin g s,^ ®

O th e r m e c h a n i s m s m e n t i o n e d w e r e : n e w s p a p e r a c t i v i t i e s and c i t i z e n

task f o r c e s . 2 2 9 c i t i z e n g r o u p s s u r v e y e d l i s t e d th e f o l l o w i n g p o in t s th a t

w o u ld e n a b l e t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n to be m o r e e f f e c t i v e :

1. L e g i s l a t i v e p r o v i s i o n s ,

2 . T im in g o f in v o lv e m e n t o p p o r tu n itie s,

3 . I n fo r m a t io n p r o v id e d by p u b lic a g e n c i e s ,

4 . I n v o lv e m e n t m e c h a n i s m s u s e d by a g e n c i e s ,

5 . F u n d s and m a n p o w e r a v a i l a b l e to the o r g a n i z a t i o n ,

6 . P r o c e d u r e s u s e d b y p u b lic a g e n c i e s .

T h i s i s o n ly a v e r y b r i e f r e v i e w o f t h i s v a s t p r o b le m f a c i n g t h o s e

p la n n in g a g e n c i e s in v o lv e d in la n d u s e p la n n in g . T h e q u e s t i o n to d a y i s

n ot w h e t h e r th e p u b lic s h o u l d be in v o lv e d and at w h a t l e v e l , r a t h e r how

c a n c i t i z e n s ' g r o u p s b e c o m e a n e f f e c t i v e p a r t o f the p la n n in g p r o c e s s at

a ll l e v e l s .

^®Ibid. , p . 13

17 I b;id . , p . 1 4 .
t k
 C H A P T E R VIII

SU M M A R Y A ND C O N SL U SIO N

In t h e p r e c e e d i n g c h a p t e r s o f t h i s p a p e r , I h a v e a t t e m p t e d to i l ­

l u s t r a t e and d i s c u s s f i v e v e r y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f lan d u s e p la n n in g

tod ay.

W h ile c u r r e n t l e g i s l a t i o n , r e g u l a t i o n s , r e s o u r c e data n e e d s and

e c o n o m i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e c r i t i c a l in p u ts to a u s e f u l p la n n in g p r o c e s s ,

I f e e l th e g r e a t e s t o b s t a c l e o r c h a l l e n g e c o n f r o n t in g a n a tu r a l r e s o u r c e

m a n a g e r to d a y i s th e c i t i z e n ’s a tt it u d e o f o p p o s i t io n o r i n d i f f e r e n c e to

i m p r o v e d lan d u s e p la n n in g . It i s a t r e m e n d o u s c h a ll e n g e and t h e r e a r e

no "how to" m a n u a l s a s y e t . It i s c l e a r th a t an a p p r o p r ia t e p la n n in g p r o ­

c e s s m u s t be d e v e lo p e d . T h e p r o c e s s m u s t f a c e h e a d - o n th e s o c i a l , e c o ­

n o m i c , and e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s r e g a r d l e s s of th e d i f f i c u l t i e s that

a r i s e , no m a t t e r how u n r e w a r d in g t h e e a r l y r e t u r n s .

P e r h a p s W i l l i a m W h y te b e s t e x p r e s s e s m y f e e l i n g s a t t h i s p o in t

w h e n h e s a id :

. . , L e t ’s b e on w it h t h e jo b a s th o u g h t h e r e w e r e l i t t l e t i m e
le ft ; l e t ’s a d d r e s s o u r s e l v e s to th e n e e d s th a t a r e p r e s s i n g ,
u s e th e t o o l s w e h a v e n o w , and n ot w o r r y s o m u c h o v e r w h a t
w i l l b e r i g h t f o r A . D . 2 0 0 0 , T h e c o m i n g o f th e n ex t m i l l e n n i u m
i s s t i l l o v e r t h ir t y y e a r s a w a y , and w h i l e th e c u r r e n t a t t e m p t
to p r o j e c t t h i s f u t u r e m a k e s f o r an i n t e r e s t i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l
e x e r c i s e , it is a l s o s o m e t h i n g o f an e f f o r t to w r i t e h i s t o r y
a h e a d o f t i m e and it c a n b e t r u ly d i v e r t i n g . ^

^ W h y te, L a n d s c a p e , p . 401 .
 87

T h e r e a l p a y - o f f w i l l be on how w e l l lan d u s e p la n n in g and th e p la n s

d ev elo p ed a r e im p le m e n te d . L an d u s e p la n n in g i s th e c o m m o n d e n o m i n ­

a t o r f o r g e t t in g p e o p le and a g e n c i e s w ith m a n y v a r i e d i n t e r e s t s t o g e t h e r .
 UriKEEPOl m
I

fc. - j- . : }■' ' ■■■ : s /

fk

F igu re 12 (Photo : W ashington C o . , Iowa, 1973, by; Jo h n E c k e s)

We m ay be faced w ith a "no tech n ical solution p ro b le m n" , 2

H ardin, T r a g e d y , p . 1246.
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