Cognitive Paradigm; Act and Process

of Knowledge

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Cognitive Paradigm; Act and Process of Knowledge
Introduction
Most of current studies have influenced the views of teaching and learning but very less
work is seen about the implications for the understanding of teachers’ behavior, learning and
pedagogy of teacher education (Korthagen & Kessels, 2010). Many learning theories have been
studied in terms of their relevance; application and effectiveness in teaching learning process e.g.
behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. These learning theories play a key role in
educational planning and structuring whole teaching learning process. By knowing and
comprehending general principles of these theories teachers can use their knowledge more
effectively in various learning conditions. The cognitive theory is considered as mostly applied in
educational settings while designing instructional materials, developing learning activities and
constructing assessment tools. This learning theory mainly focuses on process of knowledge
acquisition and mental growth of individuals. It means cognitive theory helps to understand what
students already know, how they get new information and integrate this new information into
already existing mental structure or schema (Ching, 2014). According to cognitivists, not only
environmental factors and instructional components are important in learning process but coding,
transferring, storing, rehearsing, storing and retrieving information are certain key elements that
play an important part in learning process (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968).
Cognitive theories acknowledge the role of environmental conditions as influences on
learning. Teachers’ explanations and demonstrations of concepts serve as environmental inputs
for students. Student practice of skills, combined with corrective feedback as needed, promotes
learning. A cognitive theory signifies that instructional factors alone do not fully account for
students’ learning. It is very critical to comprehend what students do with information, how they
acquire information, store, rehearse, code, transform and retrieve it (Winitzky & Kauchak, 2005).
Cognitive theory signifies the learners’ thoughts, attitudes, believes and values. Teachers need to
learn the ways learners think about their abilities heavily affect their performance. So teachers
have to focus on the learners’ thought processes while planning their lessons (Schunk, 2012).
Cognitivism is the theory of learning that emphasizes the development of learners’
intelligence to enable them to form hypotheses and solve every day problems. It focuses on how
individuals think, gain knowledge and process information. It examines how problem solving
ability groom over years from childhood to adulthood, how different factors effect language
development, academic achievements and social adjustment. To comprehend these all we need to
incorporate cognitive learning theories and principles in teacher education programs so that they
can apply them in their daily classroom practice (West-white, 2007).
Cognitive Theories: Different Viewpoints
It 1960s, the cognitive theory replaced the behaviorism theory and rise as a very dominant
paradigm. The key focus of this theory is on the inner mental state and activities of human
beings. It focuses on the opening of ‘black box’ of human mind to comprehend how people learn
and explore various mental processes as knowing, memory, thinking and problem

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solving abilities. Knowledge is seen as schema or symbolic mental construction and learning is
observed as change in schemata. For the followers of this theory, people are not programmed
animals who simply respond to stimuli for learning but are rational beings that learn by active
participation and their actions are result of their thinking. Generally students’ learning is
observed through their behaviors but considering it as the result of various mental processes
occurring in learners’ mind. Congnitivists see mind as computer where information come, being
processed, and lead to certain outcomes. While working with cognitive theory of learning,
various view point have been observed that are classified as various cognitive theories such as
developmental theory proposed by Piaget, social cognitive theory developed by Vygotsky,
behavioral objectives theory proposed by Bloom and Gagne and information processing theory
given by Atkinson & Shiffrin.

1.1 Jean Piaget

In cognitive theory Jean Piaget is very famous name who proposed four cognitive
development stages as sensory motor that last for 2 years from the birth of a child. At this stage
child get knowledge through his senses such as touch, sight, taste, sound and smell etc and
explore the world around him. At this time child don’t have any understanding of symbolic
representation but develop some of motor skills such as crawl and stand by the support of things
and holding some heavy weight toys with balance. Second stage is preoperational stage that last
till seven years, here child can develop language and thinking skills and can understand him/her
self and various relations around him/her. Third stage is concrete operational stage that occurs
between seven to eleven years; here a child can develop logical thinking but still unable for
abstract thinking, starts understanding the compositions of various objects. Here child can
distinguish between large, small, light and heavy objects. Fourth stage is formal operational stage
that begins from 12 years and lasts throughout adulthood. Here individual is able to think
abstractly and can construct hypotheses and solve various everyday problems. For Piaget, each of
stage works as perquisite for the next one and without the complete development of each stage a
child can’t learn in next stage of development for example if a child is weak in language, he can’t
think logically (McLeod, 2008).
Furthermore Jean Piaget has proposed various mind processes while acquiring and
processing new information. He emphasized that human mind is embedded with some specific
processing patterns such as a child now how to suck his thumb without being trained, we blink
our eye unconsciously, and our heart is pumping without any instruction. These all processes are
controlled by our mind. According to Piaget there are three key concept that reflect various
processes occur in our minds, first is assimilation, that occurs when an individual perceive new
information that is related to the old one that he has already in his mind. Second is
accommodation and it occurs when a person attain new information that is different from already
existing one but mind modifies and adapts the cognitive structure according to new information
and retain it. Third is equilibration that involves both assimilation and accommodation processes
and called as highest cognitive development process (Dockrell, Smith, & Tomlinson, 1997).

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1.2 Lev Vygotsky
Another view of cognitive theory is observed in the work of Vygotsky who believes that
learning passes from generation to generation and takes place in social interactions. According to
Vygotsky cognitive development can be comprehend only if we consider social and cultural
context of learning into account. Like Piaget, he emphasized that without language learning
individuals are unable to think logically (Bossenz, Habenicht, & Kunter, 2013). He proposed a
key concept of learning ‘Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) that is defined as the difference
between the level of development of a child and the level a child could reach with the help of
sufficient amount of guidance and expert’s help. Vygotsky called this Expert’s help or guidance
as ‘scaffolding’ and encourage teachers to foster learning, growth and independence by utilizing
concept of scaffolding in their teaching strategies. It is social interaction that helps children to
discover things and create their own meaning from them (Swelle, van Merriënboer, & Paas,
1998). Vygotsky was very interested in the language development as see it a key player of
cognition development. According to him language is most important component for cognitive
development and specifically language in term of collaborative dialogue where a more
knowledgeable person communicates important information to a child. There are three forms of
language or speech proposed by Vygotsky as 1) social speech, is an external communication that
people use to talk with each other, 2) private speech is an internal communication that an
individual makes to himself. It reflects intellectual skill of children and observed mostly in three
years age group, and 3) silent inner speech that occurs when private speech decrease in its
audibility unless it turns into a self regulating task and mostly observed in the age of seven
(Wilson & Peterson, 2006).

1.3 Information Processing

The cognitive approach revolutionized in late 1970s when interest in mental processes
was emphasized by the work of Piaget and Tolman and with the arrival of computer, it became
easy to comprehend the complex process of cognitive psychology. Psychologists started to
understand and investigate complicated mental processes with the help of computer’s functions
and applications (Davis & Sumara, 1997). The computer analogy assists people to get know how
their minds think and handle information, especially the way how computer codes the
information, store it, use it and generates results as output. The cognitive psychologists use the
information processing as model to understand the processes of humans’ mind and thoughts.
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Figure 1: Information Processing Paradigm

Source: (McLeod, 2008)

This approach is based on various assumptions such as
∙ Information that is gained through environment is processed by various processing
systems as perception, attention, and short-term memory
∙ These processing systems efficiently transform information in a a systematic way ∙
Information processing in individuals’ brain is similar to that in computers. Model of
Information Processing Theory
There are three key components of the information processing theory such as:

Figure 2: Multi Store Model

Source: (Davis & Sumara, 1997)

1.4 Sensory Register/Memory

Sensory register is the first component of the information processing model where
information is gained via senses and it is called a receptor cell activity. The retrieved data is
transformed into information that brain processed. This information lasts for few seconds in
human mind generally for two to three seconds only and disappears soon after. Sensory register
works as filter that retains important information and discards unnecessary data. It grabs
individuals’ attention and works as memory if the information is seen relevant and familiar.

1.5 Short Term Memory/working Memory

Short term memory is a working memory that involves three steps as 1) selection of
information, 2) processing the gained information, and 3) deciding whether to transfer
information in long term memory or discard it. Furthermore there are two aspects of the working
memory first is auditory loop that processes heard information and second is visual/spatial check
pad that processes visual information (Davis & Sumara, 1997). Sensory register transfers the
information into short-term memory where it rests for 15 to 20 seconds. Short-term memory

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maintains information through elaborative rehearsal, the maintenance refers to repetition and
elaboration refers to the information organization.

1.6 Long Term Memory

The long-term memory possesses infinite space and retains unlimited information if it is
well organized. This phase involves various types of information such as procedural information
means how to perform something, declarative information as semantic and episodic and
imaginary information based on mental images. This becomes more strong and efficient if there
is proper coding and retrieval processes involving scanning memory for information and
transferring it to long term memory (Swelle, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998).
General Cognitive Processes
Schunk (2012) summarized some important cognitive learning processes that are the key
features of cognitive theory:

1.7 Knowledge acquisition

Knowledge acquisition involves the process of gaining information, facts, concepts,
insight and understanding etc. This information is processed in the short term memory and
transferred to long-term memory for permanent retaining. It involves a complex process of
attention, perception, practice and organization of information, forms associations among
existing knowledge and create and expand schemas (Schunk, 2012). The knowledge is stored
into various forms as visual, verbal, motor, emotional, olfactory, kenesthetis and tactile. Each of
these functions independently but is closely inter-connected. There are various types of
knowledge and if encoded in two or more forms can be remembered strongly and recognized
very important for educational implications

1.8 Conditional knowledge

Conditional knowledge involves comprehension regarding when and how to use
procedural and declarative knowledge, know when to skim a text while reading and understand
how to handle situation when a machine is unable to solve problems. The conditional knowledge
is considered as valuable if goals are well accomplished. The learners would be more likely to
perform various unessential tasks, require extra time and would fail to use better alternatives to
complete their goals in the absence of this conditional knowledge.

1.9 General and specific skill acquisition

Learning of general skills like critical thinking, problem solving and self regulation
support for the learning of specific skills which are unique features related to a specific domain of
learning. Teaching of any skill involves certain key steps such as 1) present relevant information,
2) ask learners to perform specific tasks, related to specific behavior and processes, 3) identify
mistakes and 4) make corrections. These steps are key elements of Vygotsky’s concept of
scaffolding where corrective feedback is provided.

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1.10 Concept learning
The process of concept learning involves labeling, grouping and differentiating various
objects and events according to their attributes and characteristics. This would help learners to
structure representations or prototype, differentiate examples from non-example and select and
add relevant examples. To teach concepts an instructor has to present and illustrate an example,
process all essential attribute, present example and non example together and recognize their
differences (Davis & Sumara, 1997). Students are involved in various steps for the discovery of
concrete attributes of example such as identify relevant and irrelevant attributes of various
examples, generalize attributes into classification and sub-classifications and comprehend and
affirm the concept, its properties and variations.

1.11 Meta-cognition
It involves conscious and deliberate manipulation of cognitive activity and thinking about
one’s own thinking involving various tasks such as writing, persuasion, information presentation,
acquisition of language, problem solving and perception etc. Meta-cognition is a self regulatory
activity based on certain actions as recognizing required skills, strategies and resources for a task,
knowing how and when to apply these skills, strategies and resources for a successful tasks.
Some of main meta-cognition activity involves strategic application of declarative, procedural
and conditional knowledge to tasks (Schunk, 2012).

1.12 Problem solving

Problem solving is an ability to identify solution for a problem for which there is not any
regular or defined available solution. All of problems possess certain common features regardless
of complexity and content area. These features are identification of goals, overcome obstacles,
take action and observe the results. Problem solving involves trial and error; insight (i.e.
gathering information, thinking about problem searching possible solutions, testing them to
verify and solve the problem) heuristics, brainstorming and drawing analogies etc. (Atkinson &
Shiffrin, 1968). Through extensive practice of problem solving skill an intuitive and sophisticated
expertise can be gained.

1.13 Transfer
 Transfer involves the ability to apply knowledge in familiar situation with different
context or in new situation. Furthermore transfer elaborates how previous learning affects
upcoming learning where learners have to bring related experience and knowledge into the
existing setting. In learning where more similar activities are required to perform some tasks
involves more transfer e.g. if a learner know about a software processor can learn new one that
involves same actions easily (Bossenz, Habenicht, & Kunter, 2013). Some types of transfers
require higher order thinking to accomplish a task called ‘far transfer’ while other involves simple
and almost automatic thinking that called ‘near transfer’. Transfer can be increased by using
analogies, structures, and strategies recall e.g. the ability to skim memos can be used for easy
transfer to skim web pages while transferring algebra skills to calculus involves much mental
effort and instruction.
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Implications in Teaching Learning Process
In teaching learning process cognitive theory emphasizes on the internal processes of
individuals and addresses the key processes as receiving the information, organizing it, storing
and retrieving by the mind. Individuals thoughts, believes, experiences, values and attitudes are
very crucial for learning processes. This theory emphasizes upon the mental activities of
individuals involving mental planning process, seating of goals and organizing the strategies.
Learning is observed as change in states of knowledge rather changes in probability of overt
responses (Ching, 2014). The proponents of this theory see mind as a structure of information
processing system where learning occurs in a series of brain activities and transfer information
through a set of structures in the brain.
Cognitive theory is considered as prime learning theory that focuses on the brain’s
activities that filters sensory information gained through physical senses and process it for
permanent learning. According to this theory, without the selective perception and its further
processing, individuals would be unable to function properly in their lives (Ching, 2014). This
theory additionally gives importance to the role of environment that influences our learning
processes involving use of explanations, examples, demonstrations, and corrective feedback that
would ultimately support concrete and accurate mental connections. Teaching learning assists
learners to organize information in maximum way by encouraging them to utilize appropriate
learning and organizational strategies. Applying this theory in teaching learning process
individuals can be taught more complex forms of learning such as processing the information,
using reasoning, constructing mental models, and solving various problems (Jonassen, 2003).
Like behaviorism, it is required for more relevant and accurate learning that instruction comes
from an expert and embedded in the learners because the effective and efficient way of
knowledge transfer is based on standardization and simplification at least at beginning stage
(Bossenz, Habenicht, & Kunter, 2013).

1.14 Cognitive theory’s principles for teaching learning process

Following are some of basic principles that must be considered while designing the
instruction:
 ∙ Learners must be actively involved in learning processes by giving them control
over the pace of their instruction and teaching meta-cognitive skills as involving
them in planning, self monitoring and revising learning strategies.
∙ Emphasize on the organization, structuring and sequencing the information for
facilitating maximum cognitive processes. Teaching of cognitive strategies
involves outlining, summarizing, concept mapping and advance organizer.
∙ Recognize and demonstrate prerequisite relationships among learning activities by
using hierarchical analysis and construct content by applying task and content
analysis.

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∙ Construct learning environment that support and assist learners for developing
connections among previously learnt materials and encourage them to recall
previous learnt material by using examples and analogies.
∙ Understand the importance of students’ previous experiences that significantly
influence their future learning outcomes.
∙ Arrange practices with corrective feedback so that new information can be
assimilated effectively and efficiently accommodated within the cognitive
structure of learners.
∙ Decide the most effective ways to structure and organize new information for
knocking already learned knowledge, abilities and experiences.
Cognitive Theory and Teacher Education
The knowledge and application of the learning theories can enable teachers to apply
general principles effectively to various learning situations (Winitzky & Kauchak, 2005). It
would help them to know the learners’ understanding, memory and learning processes, how
differently the learners organize knowledge, and how these differences influence their
perceptions. Specifically incorporating cognitive theory’s principles in teacher education program
would assist them to understand how learners get information, process it and make it permanent
part of their life and use this knowledge to solve their everyday problems effectively (Korthagen
& Kessels, 2010). Various studies have been conducting to assess the implication of cognitive
theory in teacher education programs and it is observed that expert teachers remember more
details about the classroom events than the novice teachers and it helps them in their teaching
while promoting the students’ learning. Such results suggest that comprehending the general
principles of cognitive theory provides teachers a strong base of knowledge that can be applied in
variety of situations. Such knowledge contributes to enhance teachers’ ability to understand,
frame and solve problems and moreover to apply this knowledge in novel and changing
situations (Jonassen, 2003). Furthermore it would help teachers to make sense of complex
learning environment and effectively teach in such situations (Wilson & Peterson, 2006). The
cognitive theory should be the part of teacher education programs because the knowledge gained
by this would contribute a lot in teachers’ self growth and outfit them with effective teaching
skills. This would help teachers to:
∙ Carefully comprehend and develop learning activities according to the respective
cognitive developmental stage of child and assign them relevant learning
experiences and tasks
∙ Provide learning opportunities to children that would enable them growth through
each stage and maintain balance between guiding the children learning and
enabling them to explore things by their own.
∙ Concentrate on the process of information processing instead only focusing the end
product of their thoughts.
∙ Encourage the learners to learn from each other, break their egocentrism by
considering others’ view points and respecting them.

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∙ Guide children’s learning processes and adapt curriculum according to individual
needs.
The computer technology was introduced into educational system in 1970s and transits
the mode of teaching that requires teachers to change teaching strategies and their role in
classrooms. Implementing the computer technology into the classrooms effectively is possible if
teachers are well trained for the use of various technologies (McLeod, 2008). Many studies have
shown the various positive aspects of computer usage into learning environment. It is emphasized
that teachers must try to create balance between computer technologies and hand on activities for
children.
Conclusion
Learning theories are considered as key source for educational planning and developing
learning activities and experiences but in teacher education these are restricted to only theoretical
aspect and not embedded in teaching practice. This creates a doubt regarding the success and
effectiveness of teacher education programs for developing the professional behavior of teachers
(Hennissena, Beckersb, & Moerkerke, 2017).
The ‘teachers thinking movement’ started is 1970s has developed the concept of teachers
as conscious ‘decision maker’ and assumed that teachers must possess theoretical structures
which they can use in practical situations. Teachers’ cognition is considered as common line of
thinking about the relationship between teachers’ behavior and their cognition illustrate the fact
that when teacher making decisions would use research based knowledge offered to them
(Roberts, 2016). In cognitive psychology individuals are seen as information processors having
complex mental processes. Here learning is seen as acquisition of knowledge and the learner is
an information processor, who has to gain information, process it and store it in his memory. In
cognitive theory preferred teaching methods are reading text books and lecturing where the
learner is a passive recipient of knowledge given by the teacher.
The key concept of cognitive theory ‘information processing’ has influenced the whole
theory of teaching and learning and educational technology. This information processing model
has introduced the working memory and long term memory for the day to day planning of
instruction. The concept of rehearsal in many teaching strategies has evolved from the working
memory theory (Hong, Chen, Chai, & Chan, 2011). As the teacher is a most important figure that
can influence educational outcomes so it is suggested that application of cognitive theory to
educational practice must be the part of teachers training programs. By developing teachers
capability for effective diagnosing and attending learning needs of students, would ultimately
result in helping them in adapting learning requirements of the school and workplace
successfully.