Rules of Thumb

Airspeed/Altitude/Temperature

Standard Temperature (ISA): 15°C (59°F) at sea level. ISA decreases 2°C (3.5°F) per 1,000 foot increase in altitude
True Airpseed (TAS): Add 2% to indicated airspeed (IAS) for every 1,000 foot increase in altitude Density Altitude:
For every variation of ±15°F or ±8°C from standard temperature at a given pressure altitude, density altitude
increases/decreases 1,000 feet
Air Density/Humidity: For every 20°F temperature increase air density decreases 2-3% (moisture holding capacity
doubles)
Relative Humidity: Dew point/Temperature = Percentage [Example: (9°C/19°C) = 47%]
Density Altitude: Increases or decreases 120 feet for each 1 degree Celsius that the temperature varies from standard
temperature
Density Altitude: Outside temperature minus standard temperature multiplied by 120 plus pressure altitude [Example:
(OAT-ISA) x 120 + PA = DA]
Calculating standard temperature at altitude: [Example of 12,000 feet: (12 x 2) -15=9. Convert to a negative. -9°C
at 12,000 feet]
Celsius to Fahrenheit (15°C, for example): (15 x 2) + 30 = 60°F (59°F) Fahrenheit to Celsius (59°F, for example):
(59 – 30) ÷ 2 = 14.5°C (15°C)
Maneuvering Speed (Va): Reduce Va by one-half the percentage of weight reduction. [Example: Va at 3,000 lbs =
100kts.; 2,400 lbs = 20% reduction on weight. Reduce Va by 10 kts.]
Maneuering Speed Formula: Va2 = Va√(W2 ÷ W1); whereas Va2 is calculated maneuvering speed, Va is
maneuvering speed at gross weight, W2 is reduced weight, and W1 is gross weight Manuevering Speed (Va): Subtract
1 knot for each 100 pounds under gross landing weight
Stall speed: As weight doubles, stall speed increases by √2, or 1.414

Aircraft Loading

Weight of 100LL: 6.0 lbs/gal

Weight of Jet A: 6.75 lbs/gal
Weight of 50W Oil: 7.5 lbs/gal (1.875 lbs/qt)
Jet A lbs. to gallons: Divide pounds required by 10, add 50% [Example: (2,000 lbs. ÷ 10) x 1.5 = 300 gallons) OR drop
the zero then add 50%]
Weight x Arm = Moment
Total Moment ÷ Total Weight = CG (inches)
CG Distance Aft of LEMAC ÷ MAC = CG in % MAC
Weight Shift Formula: (Weight shifted/Total weight) = (Distance CG shifted/Distance weight shifted)

Takeoff/Landing Performance

General: Add at least a 20% safety margin to all POH/AFM performance figures, as insurance Takeoff distance:
Increase by 10% for each 1,000 foot density altitude above sea level Ground roll: Increases or decreases by 10% for
every 10°C change in temperature from ISA Ground roll: For every 10% change in weight, ground roll changes 20%
Abort distance: Abort the takeoff if the aircraft has not achieved 70% of its flying speed by the time it has used 50% of
the runway
Rotate speed (Vr): Generally equal to 1.15 Vs
Obstacle clearance: The distance/time to clear an obstacle is reduced by 5% for every 100 lbs. below max gross weight
Runway gradient: A 1% airport grade will affect the aircraft by 10% over what is stated in the POH/AFM
Tailwind: A tailwind of 10% of your approach speed will increase landing distance by 20% Headwind: A headwind of
10% or your approach speed will decrease landing distance by 20%

Climb/Enroute/Descent

Climb Gradient (Feet per NM to Feet per min.): Groundspeed x feet per NM/60. [Example: (140 kts x 200 ft/nm) ÷
60 = 466 ft/min]
To reduce effects of headwind in climb: Climb at cruise climb
To take advantage of tailwind in climb: Climb at Vy
Angle of Bank for Standard Rate Turn: 10% of TAS + 5 [example: (120 x .10) + 5 = 17°]
Pivotal Altitude: (TAS)2/11.3 (knots) OR (TAS)2/15 (MPH)
Time to Station: (60 x Time between bearings)/bearing change = time [Example: (60 x 6 min)/10° = 36 min. to station]
Distance to Station: (TAS x Min. flown)/degree of bearing change = distance [Example: (160 x 6 min/10° = 96 miles)]
Time to Descend: (Altitude to Lose/Rate of Descent) = Time to Descend
Miles to Descend: (Flight Level/3) = NM [Example: (120/3) = 40 NM]
3° Glideslope: Half your ground speed and add a zero [Example: (90 ÷ 2 = 45) x 10 = 450 fpm] Calculating Visual
Descent Point (VDP) Distance Method: HAT (height above touchdown)/300 [Example: (480/300) = 1.6 NM from
threshold] Calculating Visual Descent Point (VDP) Time Method: HAT x 10% [Example: 480 x 10% = 48 seconds
to subtract from MAP timing]