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Module IV: Group Dynamics

concept of group dynamics- features of group formal and informal group behavior -Cohesiveness
- co-operation - competition -conflict - resolution-group norms-role-position-statustransactional
analysis. Supervision style - training for supervisors.

Group

1. Defining Teams and Groups:

● Group: A collection of two or more individuals who share common interests, goals, or

activities and interact with each other in a somewhat regular and sustained way. They

may or may not have a formal structure or designated roles.

● Team: A specialized type of group with a high level of interdependence, shared

responsibility, and collective accountability for achieving a specific goal. Teams typically

have well-defined roles, structures, and communication channels.

2. Why People Join Groups:

● Social Needs: Affiliation, belonging, and acceptance.

● Task Needs: Achieving common goals, sharing resources and expertise.

● Identity Needs: Finding a sense of self and belonging to a larger community.

● Personal Growth: Learning new skills, developing confidence, and gaining access to

opportunities.

● Power and Influence: Achieving collective goals that individuals cannot achieve alone.

3. Factors Affecting Group Performance:

● Group Size: Smaller groups often perform better due to increased communication and

coordination, while larger groups can offer diverse perspectives but face challenges with

coordination and decision-making.

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● Group Composition: Diversity in skills, knowledge, and perspectives can enhance

creativity and problem-solving, but managing different working styles and potential

conflicts requires effective leadership and communication.

● Group Cohesiveness: The degree of unity and shared commitment within the group,

positively impacting motivation, effort, and performance.

● Leadership: Effective leadership provides direction, facilitates communication, resolves

conflicts, and motivates group members.

● Communication: Open, clear, and frequent communication is crucial for sharing

information, resolving disagreements, and building trust.

● Goals and Objectives: Clearly defined, achievable, and shared goals provide direction

and motivate group members.

● Resources: Adequate resources, such as time, budget, and equipment, are essential for

successful task completion.

● External Environment: Factors such as organizational culture, competition, and external

pressures can influence group performance.

4. Group Behavior:

● Social Loafing: The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a

group compared to working alone.

● Groupthink: The pressure to conform to the group's consensus, even if it leads to poor

decision-making.

● Free Riding: Individuals benefiting from the group's efforts without contributing their

fair share.

● Norming: Establishing and adhering to shared expectations and behaviors within the

group.

● Conformity: Adjusting individual behavior to align with group norms and expectations.
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5. Communication Structure in Groups:

● Formal Structure: Defined communication channels, often hierarchical, with designated

leaders and reporting lines.

● Informal Structure: Unofficial communication channels that emerge organically within

the group, based on personal relationships and preferences.

● Centralized Communication: Information flows through a central figure or small group,

limiting participation and potentially hindering information flow.

● Decentralized Communication: Information flows freely among all group members,

encouraging participation and fostering collaboration.

Understanding these concepts is crucial for effectively working in and leading groups and teams.

By recognizing the different factors that influence group dynamics and communication,

individuals can contribute to creating a positive and productive group environment.

Group Formation
The five stages of group formation are:
Forming: In the forming stage, the group is just getting started. This is when members are
getting to know each other and trying to figure out what the group is going to be about.
Storming: The storming stage is when conflict starts to emerge. This can be a difficult time for
the group, as members clash over their differences.
Norming: The norming stage is when the group starts to come together. This is when the group
starts to develop rules and norms, and conflicts are resolved.
Performing: The performing stage is when the group reaches its peak. This is when the group is
functioning well and members are working together towards a common goal.
Mourning: The mourning stage is when the group starts to fall apart. This can be a difficult time
for members, as they say, goodbye to the group that has been so important to them.

The Intricate Journey: Understanding Group Formation in Organizational Behavior

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Within the complex world of organizations, individuals come together to form groups, shaping
the landscape of collaboration, decision-making, and overall performance. This process of group
formation, though seemingly straightforward, is a dynamic and intricate journey characterized by
distinct stages, each presenting unique challenges and opportunities. Understanding these stages
is crucial for both individuals and organizations seeking to foster effective and productive group
dynamics.

The most widely recognized model for understanding group formation is Tuckman's five-stage
model:

1. Forming: This initial stage is marked by uncertainty and exploration. Individuals are
getting acquainted, establishing initial impressions, and trying to understand the group's purpose
and expectations. Communication is often tentative, and the focus is on building basic trust and
comfort. Challenges in this stage include overcoming awkwardness, managing individual
anxieties, and establishing clear communication channels.

2. Storming: As familiarity increases, disagreements and conflicts often arise. Individuals

assert their opinions, jockey for position, and challenge existing ideas. This stage can be
characterized by tension, frustration, and even power struggles. Effective leadership and open
communication are critical in navigating this phase, allowing for healthy debate while ensuring
respect and inclusivity.

3. Norming: Through collaborative efforts and conflict resolution, the group begins to develop
shared norms and expectations. Members start agreeing on acceptable behaviors,
communication styles, and decision-making processes. This stage fosters a sense of cohesion and
facilitates smoother collaboration. Leaders can support this stage by actively encouraging
participation, promoting consensus building, and establishing ground rules.

4. Performing: Having established a foundation of trust, respect, and shared understanding, the
group transitions into a high-performing stage. Members work effectively together, leverage
individual strengths, and efficiently achieve their goals. Communication becomes more focused
and collaborative, and problem-solving is driven by collective effort. Leaders can further
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enhance performance by providing clear direction, delegating tasks effectively, and recognizing
individual and group contributions.

5. Adjourning (optional): This stage is relevant for temporary groups that disband after
achieving their goals. It involves closure and disbanding. Members reflect on their experience,
celebrate achievements, and potentially address any unresolved issues. Effective leadership
during this stage ensures a smooth transition and fosters positive memories of the group
experience.

It's important to note that these stages are not always linear or strictly defined. Groups may
revisit earlier stages or experience them in a different order. However, understanding the
characteristics and challenges of each stage can equip individuals and leaders with valuable tools
to navigate the group formation process effectively.

Additional Factors Influencing Group Formation:

Beyond the traditional stages, several other factors influence group formation in organizational
settings:

● Group size: Smaller groups tend to foster closer relationships and quicker
decision-making, while larger groups may require more structured communication and
leadership.
● Group composition: Diversity in terms of personality, skills, and backgrounds can
enrich group discussions and problem-solving, but also requires effective management to
prevent conflicts.
● External factors: Organizational culture, task complexity, and resource availability can
significantly impact group dynamics and performance.

By acknowledging these complexities and actively nurturing positive group development,

organizations can unlock the immense potential of collaborative work. Fostering open
communication, promoting inclusivity, and providing effective leadership throughout the group
formation process are essential steps in building high-performing teams that drive innovation and
success.
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In conclusion, understanding the process of group formation is a valuable asset for individuals
and organizations alike. By recognizing the distinct stages, addressing their unique challenges,
and leveraging the influence of additional factors, we can cultivate effective and productive
group dynamics, ultimately paving the way for a more collaborative and successful
organizational environment.

Delving Deeper into the Stages of Group Formation:

1. Forming:

● Key features:
○ Uncertainty and exploration dominate.
○ Individuals are getting acquainted, establishing initial impressions.
○ Focus is on understanding the group's purpose and expectations.
○ Communication is tentative and often superficial.
● Challenges:
○ Overcoming awkwardness and social anxieties.
○ Managing individual differences and establishing rapport.
○ Clarifying group goals and expectations.
○ Establishing clear communication channels.
● Strategies:
○ Icebreakers and team-building activities to facilitate introductions.
○ Open communication to discuss goals, expectations, and concerns.
○ Leader setting clear expectations and providing initial guidance.

2. Storming:

● Key features:
○ Disagreements and conflicts arise as individuals assert their opinions.
○ Power struggles, challenges to existing ideas, and frustration may occur.
○ Cliques may form, hindering collaboration.
● Challenges:
○ Navigating conflict constructively and avoiding personal attacks.
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○ Balancing individual needs with group goals.

○ Establishing ground rules for respectful communication and collaboration.
● Strategies:
○ Active listening and encouraging diverse perspectives.
○ Leader facilitating open discussions and conflict resolution.
○ Focusing on common goals and emphasizing the value of collaboration.

3. Norming:

● Key features:
○ Shared norms and expectations develop, fostering cohesion.
○ Members agree on acceptable behaviors, communication styles, and
decision-making processes.
○ Trust and respect increase, leading to smoother collaboration.
● Challenges:
○ Ensuring inclusivity and addressing any lingering conflicts.
○ Balancing individual needs with established group norms.
○ Adapting to changing circumstances and maintaining flexibility.
● Strategies:
○ Leader encouraging participation and consensus building.
○ Establishing clear ground rules and holding members accountable.
○ Celebrating successes and promoting a positive group culture.

4. Performing:

● Key features:
○ High level of collaboration and effective teamwork.
○ Members leverage individual strengths for efficient goal achievement.
○ Communication is focused, open, and problem-solving is collective.
● Challenges:
○ Maintaining motivation and preventing complacency.
○ Adapting to new challenges and unforeseen circumstances.
○ Recognizing and addressing individual and group conflicts constructively.
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● Strategies:
○ Leader providing clear direction, delegating tasks effectively, and offering
support.
○ Regular communication and feedback to maintain focus and address concerns.
○ Recognizing and celebrating individual and group contributions.

5. Adjourning (optional):

● Key features:
○ Closure and disbanding of the group after achieving its goals.
○ Reflection on the experience, celebrating achievements, and addressing any
unresolved issues.
● Challenges:
○ Ensuring a smooth transition and managing potential emotional attachments.
○ Addressing any lingering conflicts or unresolved issues.
○ Providing closure and fostering positive memories of the group experience.
● Strategies:
○ Leader facilitating open discussions and reflection on the experience.
○ Recognizing individual and group contributions.
○ Organizing a farewell event or activity to promote closure.

By understanding the intricacies of each stage and implementing appropriate strategies,

individuals and leaders can foster effective group formation, paving the way for successful
collaboration and achieving organizational goals.

The Stages of Group Formation for Team Development

The forming stages in teams can be a daunting team development process for both you, and your
employees. It is unpredictable, unreliable and a big risk for any company to take.

In 1965, Psychologist Bruce Tuckman proposed five stages of team development: Forming,
Storming, Norming, Performing and Adjourning. Tuckman's stages describe five stages that
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every team goes through during its development. By understanding Tuckman's model, it can help
take away the unpredictability of forming teams and allow you, and your team, a better chance at
team success.

Stage 1. Forming

This is the first stage of a team coming together; a group of people have come together to
accomplish a shared purpose and the results can be unpredictable. At the beginning, anxiety is
high, people are uncertain and they are overly polite and pleasant.

This stage can last a while as people get to know each other and the team's success. That's
because this stage depends on their familiarity with each other's work styles, their experience
with prior teams and clarity of assigned tasks. In this earlier stage, take time to establish or
re-establish ground rules and roles in the team. Realign on the team's purpose to so everyone
knows how to maximize their strengths and trust in other's strengths in times where they need
help.

As the team leader, you should:

● Play a dominant role at this stage to help your employees recognise whos the leader
● Establish the team's goals and objectives clearly for the whole team and individual
members
● Allow for open communication so that your team members can get to know each other

Stage 2. Storming
This is the hardest stage in the development of any team, and undoubtedly your team will be at
its least effective here. This stage is marked by conflict and competition as personalities and
working styles begin to evolve and the group members of your team are unfamiliar on how to
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communicate with each other. Teams may also disagree on the common goal and subgroups or
cliques may form. Many teams often fail at this stage so it is important to reduce and address this
conflict so that problems do not occur later on.

As the leader, you should:

● Be specific and clarify goals

● Remain positive
● Ensure that you don’t overload the members with work
● Ensure that you support your team members, and ensure that they support each other;
building trust is crucial at this stage.
● Explain the forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning model to your team
so they know what to expect.
● Use personality tests, such as the ones outlined in the article, to aid the understanding of
each others personality and work styles.

The effectiveness of the team at each stage

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Stage 3: Norming

The team will begin to resolve their interpersonal differences, appreciate others and form
working relationships during the norming stage. There is a sense of cohesion and unity and this
allows for the team to work functionally together towards the end goal. At this point,
performance increase as the team begins to cooperate and focus on the goals.

As the leader, you should:

● Provide feedback, both positive and negative.

● Step back and allow your team to take responsibility towards the goal; you could even
begin to work on other tasks - perhaps even forming new teams!
● Incorporate team building exercises to strengthen the unity and trust within the team.

Stage 4: Performing

At the performing stage, relationships are formed and there is a clear and stable structure. The
team is mature, organised and has a sense of consensus and cooperation. Problems and conflict,
of course, do still arise, but they are dealt with effectively. The prime focus of the team is on
problem solving and meeting goals; effectiveness is at its peak.

As the leader, you should:

● Delegate work evenly and fairly

● Focus on the development of individual team members
● Allow people to join, or leave, as it won’t affect group performance.

Stage 5: Adjourning

The fifth stage is called Adjourning or Mourning stage. This final stage is the point where the
project comes to an end and the team separates and goes their separate ways. Some team
members may find the adjourning stage hard because they liked the routine of the group, have
made close friendships or if the future, after leaving this team, looks bleak and unpromising.

As a leader, you should:

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● Allow for celebration

● Recognise and reward
● Allow for reflection: what went right? What went wrong?
● Give guidance and support about future plans

Meaning of Group Dynamics

Groups are important for organisational life. Managers spend substantial time in managing
groups and teams so that groups contribute to organisational and group goals. How effectively a
manager plans, organises, staffs, leads and controls depends upon how effectively he manages
the groups. A group means “two or more people who interact with one another, are
psychologically aware of one another, perceive themselves to be members of the group, and
work towards a common goal.”

Group dynamics studies the nature, formation and reasons for forming the groups. It studies how
groups affect the behaviour and attitude of members and the organisation. It is a process by
which people interact with each other. If groups are effectively managed, they contribute a lot to
organisational goals.

2. Features of Group
1. It consists of two or more persons who interact with each other.

2. Group members have reciprocal influence on each other. Each member influences and is
influenced by others in the group.

3. People develop mutual perceptions and emotions. They perceive and recognise each other as
members of the group.

4. Every group has

● formal leader elected by group members, and

● informal leader “who engages in leadership activities but whose right to
do so has not been formally recognised by the organisation or group.”
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5. Each individual performs specific role which influences expectations of group members from
each other. Role structure is “the set of defined roles and inter-relationships among those roles
that the group or team members define and accept.”

6. Every group has group norms. “Norm is a standard of behaviour that the group accepts and
expects of its members. It represents standards of work to promote group activity.”

7. It maintains stability through group cohesiveness. Members

● develop liking for each other,

● develop sense of identification with each other, and
● remain attached to each other.

8. Members work for common interests and goals.

3. Group and Collection of People

Group is a collection of people to achieve a common goal. Can a collection of people, therefore,
sitting in the library or cinema hall or bus stop be called a group? No. This is mere aggregation
of people. Interaction, power to influence and dependence on each other makes aggregation be
called a group.

Aggregation of people is called a group when people;

● Interact with each other.

● Influence the behaviour of each other.
● Are mutually dependant on each other.

People share views on the common subject, interact with one another, get influenced by others
and arrive at consensus of opinion. Thus, group is an aggregation of people who interact with
one another and influence interdependence of individuals. Study of groups and group behaviour
is known as ‘Group Dynamics’. It is an important aspect of organising.

4. Types of Groups
● I. Formal and informal groups
● II. Primary and secondary groups
● III. Small and large groups
● I. Formal and informal groups
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Formal groups

Formal groups are deliberately created to carry out specific tasks. They have clearly defined
authority-responsibility relationships, communication channels, rules and regulations that govern
the behaviour of members. Committees, task forces and work teams are the formal groups.

Formal Groups can be :

● (i) Permanent Formal Groups [Command groups and permanent committees]

● (ii) Temporary Formal Groups [Task forces and project groups]

(i) Permanent formal groups are formally represented on the organisation chart. They are also
known as command groups and have both managers and subordinates. functional or product
departments are the command groups.

(ii) Temporary formal groups deal with specific problems. They dissolve once the problem is
solved. Task groups, project groups or ad hoc committees are temporary formal groups. They are
created to respond to the changing environment and include people from different command
groups.

Types of Committees : Committees (formal groups) can be of the following types :

(i) Line and Staff Committees : The basis of forming line and staff committees is authority.
committee which has authority to make decisions is line committee and committee which does
not make decisions but only assists, advices and counsels the superiors is staff committee. It
helps line managers to perform the managerial functions

(ii) Ad hoc and Standing Committee : The basis for forming ad hoc and standing committees is
time frame. Committees which are formed for a specific purpose and dissolve once the purpose is
achieved are ad hoc or temporary committees. For example, if company wants to conduct market
survey for a new product, committee shall be formed for this purpose which shall function till the
survey is completed. Once done and the product launched, the committee gets dissolved.
committee which lasts for long duration is standing or permanent committee. These committees
provide advisory functions to the chief executives.

(iii) Formal and Informal Committees : The basis of forming formal and informal committees
is their position on the organisation chart. Committees formed according to formal procedures
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and assigned duties, power and authority to discharge those duties are formal committees. They
are formally shown on organisation charts and are permanent committees.

Informal committees are groups of individuals which are not officially set up by the organisation.
They work for a given purpose without officially defined rules or guidelines.

(iv) Plural Executive Committee and Advisory Committee : committee which carries out
managerial functions (planning through controlling), makes and implements decisions is a plural
executive committee. The most common example of this committee is the board of directors
which takes important managerial decisions and orders for their implementation. The advisory
committee does not make decisions but only performs advisory or recommendatory functions.

Informal Groups

Meaning : These groups are not created by managers but spontaneously grow out of interaction
amongst members of formal groups. They are created by choice for promoting the group goals.
members even subordinate individual goals to group goals. These groups may oppose or support
the formal objectives. They are informal committees not shown on the organisation chart. They
form out of common thinking of people. They are temporary and assist top executives on specific
matters.

Types of Informal Groups : These are also called ‘overlays’. They are classified into five
categories by Pfiffner and Sherwood.

(i) Social overlays : These groups form because of social needs of people, that is, need to
interact.

(ii) Functional overlays : People of one department assist people of other departments. Workers
of production department can go to supervisors of sales department for help. groups formed
through inter-departmental interactions are called functional overlays.

(iii) Decision overlays : Some people excel in decision-making because of their ability to judge,
analyse and scan the information. People often approach them from different departments for
consultation. This forms decision overlays.

(iv) Power overlays : Power is different from authority. While authority is authority of position,
power is the authority of individual. Managers can acquire power through experience, education,
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and factors like religion, politics, nationality etc. Interaction based on such factors forms power
overlays.

(v) Communication overlays : People using common equipments and machines, recreational
halls, canteens, club facilities etc. interact informally and form communication overlays.

Functions of Informal Groups : Major functions of informal groups are as follows:

(i) Group values and life-style : Within formal structure of organisation, informal groups arise
on the basis of social values and life-styles of individuals. However, as these groups strengthen,
they develop tendency to resist change.

(ii) Social satisfaction : Interaction at the work place, sharing common thoughts, sitting and
eating together satisfy employees’ social needs.

(iii) Operate communication systems : Informal system of communication operates along the
formal channel of communication and works even faster than the formal communication
channel. Messages are transmitted at much faster speed though rumours may also spread along
with formal messages.

(iv) Maintain social control : Informal groups influence behaviour of people inside and outside
the group. Influencing behaviour inside the group is called internal control and of those outside
the groups is called external control. A particular kind of behaviour not acceptable to group
serves as internal control. External control is exercised on people outside the group such as, trade
unions.

II. Primary and secondary groups

Primary groups promote common goals. Members share values and behaviour. These groups are
small and largely affect inter-personal behaviour. Friendship and social needs are the basis of
these groups.

Secondary groups have loose inter-personal relationships and no common goals to share. Their
members do not actively interact with each other. Professional bodies, business organisations are
the common forms of secondary groups.
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III. Small and large groups

Small groups have few members who closely interact with each other. Large groups have large
number of members with weak inter-personal interaction. They do not actively communicate
with each other.

5. Reasons for Joining Informal Groups

● I. Internal Reasons
● II. External Reasons

I. Internal Reasons

Groups satisfy needs in the following ways :

1. Interpersonal attraction : There is basic need in human beings for care, help and be useful to
others. When people have similar attitudes, personality, economic status, values and beliefs, they
become part of the same group. They like to enjoy interact with others. Frequent interaction is
rewarding as it promotes similar values and beliefs.

2. Group activities : A person may join a group because he is attracted by group activities, like
religious and charitable activities. Though group activities attract membership, interpersonal
attraction is also necessary. A person may choose to forgo the activity than join a group with low
interpersonal attraction.

3. Group goals : People join groups because they are motivated by group goals, for example,
upliftment of the poor.

4. Group norms : Group norms have strong influence on behaviour of members. Norms are the
standards accepted by the group. They are implicitly binding on group members. They are not
written rules of behaviour but evolve informally. Members implicitly agree to these standards.
Group norms influence behaviour a great deal and are binding on members of the group.

5. Higher pay-off : Generally, people behave according to perceived reward for the behaviour. If
one type of behaviour has higher pay-off (is rewarded more), they repeat that behaviour.
Researchers have shown that when pay-off is high, people tend to collaborate more, particularly
those who are interested in others. Conceptually, achievement motivation (concern for individual
excellence and competition) is supposed to have high correlation with competitive behaviour.
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But findings did not bear this result. A person with high achievement motivation is interested in
results. If he perceives that by collaborating he can get better results, he is likely to collaborate.
Similarly, if a person perceives that results are better (pay-off is higher) from competition, he is
likely to compete against others.
Not only those who have tendency to collaborate but also those who have tendency to compete
collaborate if collaborative behaviour has higher pay-off.
For instance, political parties who compete with each other often collaborate when it comes to
winning an election compaign.

6. Need satisfaction : People join groups to satisfy their affiliation, achievement, power, social
and esteem needs. New residents in a locality, for example, join the local club to satisfy their
individual needs.
Even at work place, informal groups provide mental rest and release official tensions.

II. External Reasons

People join groups because group membership satisfies their needs by forces that lie outside the
group. It provides benefits other than those provided by the group:

1. Interaction : Professionally qualified students become members of groups which have

contacts with firms for job market. Their interaction with companies is not direct but through
groups.

2. Personal goals : Group membership helps to achieve personal goals which are different from
group goals. People join Lions Club or Rotary Club not because these clubs meet their personal
goals (club goals may be different from personal goals) but because other members of the club
help to establish contacts (business or otherwise) which satisfy their personal goals.

3. Superordinate goals : These goals are important to all the parties and cannot be achieved by
any party alone.
Experimental conflict and competition were first created in two groups of adolescents who were
taken out camping for several days. Later, situations were created in which problems could not
be solved independently by either group (superordinate goal). It was found that perception of
superordinate goals by both the groups, which were hitherto involved in conflict and competition
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with each other, changed their behaviour and they engaged in maximum possible collaboration.
Several factors contribute to development of superordinate goal.

(i) The goal should be attractive and desirable to all the members.

(ii) The goal should be seen as shareable so that all individuals (or groups) share it.

(iii) If the situation is seen as something in which the goal cannot be achieved by single
individual or group without working with other(s), then it becomes a superordinate goal.

In traditional sports, members of a team competing with other teams have superordinate goal of
getting higher score. Within the team itself, members play collaborative game because they
perceive the superordinate goal. The goal of victory is attractive to all members, they see this as
shareable goal, and each one knows it cannot be achieved single-handedly, that each has to work
with others to achieve this goal.

When people see a goal as having all these three elements, it becomes a superordinate goal.

4. Perceived power : Another condition which contributes to collaboration in group is the

perception of power. It can be power to reward and power to punish. Punishment may be in the
form of depriving a person of the reward which he or she is likely to get. This may be done by
holding back information or misleading the other person. Even the person at the lowest level in
organisation can use negative power to create annoying situations: delaying matters, holding
back information, giving information which creates misunderstandings, etc.
If people in the system perceive clearly that they have power which is positive in nature, that
they may be able to contribute to and use their influence for the attainment of certain goals, this
is perception of positive power. At the same time, it is important that they realise that others
involved in the situation also have power, both positive and negative.

5. Mutual trust : Along with perception of each other’s power, it is important that parties do not
use power against each other. Some amount of mutual trust is likely to lead to co-operation. Trust
indicates high probability that power of the concerned party or individual will not be used in a
mala fide way. Combination of perceived power and trust leads to co-operation.

6. Communication : communication amongst parties involved in the situation also contributes

to collaboration. Several experiments have demonstrated that when representatives of the groups
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communicate with each other, the chances of collaboration increase.

Communication opens possibility of discussing the consequences of behaviour. It also helps the
groups to discuss their perception of each other’s power and see that power turns into positive
force for the benefit of all concerned. When people communicate as representatives of a group, it
is important that the groups they represent trust them and representatives are sure that the
commitment they make to other groups will be honoured by them.

7. Fait accompli : If groups or individuals live together and share certain norms, they begin to
see good points in each other and collaboration begins to emerge. As long as individuals or
groups do not work or live together, they may be prejudiced about each other. Poor
communication or indifference can lead to prejudice.
For example, till representatives of the management and the union do not communicate with
each other, management may think Union has no empathy for them. The realisation that they
have to live or work together contributes to collaboration. Through sharing of experiences, they
evolve common understanding and norms. Sharing a space may help each party to ‘experience’
and ‘see’ the other party’s strengths and good points.

6. Management of Informal Groups

Informal groups (or informal organisations) cannot be avoided. Managers should view them as
pillars of support to formal structures. Many problems can be solved by informal groups if they
are formally accepted. They speed up transmission of information and provide feedback on how
people respond to policies and procedures. They provide useful tips on matters which cannot be
officially deal with. They also promote team spirit which reduces the need for close control and
supervision. Informal groups are a strong support and supplement to formal structures. Managers
should, therefore, merge group goals with organisational goals. Following measures help to
achieve this objective :

1. Managers view informal groups as support to formal structures.

2. They use these groups to obtain quick feedback on how people respond to plans, policies and
procedures.

3. They view them as important supplement to formal groups.

4. They involve group members in group decision-making.

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5. They integrate group goals with organisational goals and avoid inter-group conflicts.

6. They merge informal goals with positive attitude towards formal organisation structure.

7. They increase group cohesiveness by promoting inter-group competition, inter-personal

attraction, consensus on group goals etc.

7. How do Groups Influence Member Behaviour

Groups satisfy needs of members in the following ways:

1. Members of informal groups have common values (social and cultural) which perpetuate
group goals.

2. They fulfil needs of interaction, recognition and acceptance by others. Members derive
individuality as part of informal groups.

3. They solve work-related problems in a friendly and supportive way.

4. They promote skills of communication, leadership and direction.

5. They promote cordial environment in the organisation.

6. They provide opportunities for personal growth.

7. They overcome stress and frustration of members through friendship, love and support.

8. Negative Aspects of Group Influence

Groups may prove to be counter-productive in the following cases:

1. Excessive conformity to norms hinders creativity if group norms (or goals) are different from
organisational norms. Members are reluctant to act differently as they fear to lose group
approval.

2. Negative attitude of group leaders promotes vested interest at the cost of organisational
interest.

3. If group goals are different from organisational goals, members pursue group goals. There is
conflict between formal and informal roles.
 22

4. Since informal groups do not follow official channels of communication, they may spread
false information or rumours. This is counter-productive for organisational activities.

5. If group norms and values are carried too far, they become resistant to change. Groups become
overprotective about group values. People do not deviate from values or norms.

9. Group Processes and Functions

Groups perform the following processes and functions :

1. Assign Roles : Role is a set of expected behaviour attributed to someone who occupies a
given position in a social unit. In formal groups, these roles are defined by job titles and
positions. In informal groups, they are defined by their expectations and perceptions of other
managers. Group members perform the following roles:

(i) Task-oriented roles : Members perform organisational tasks and keep other members
focused on work.

(ii) Relations-oriented roles : They offer ideas and support other people’s ideas.

(iii) Self-oriented roles : These roles define personal expectations of members. They may or
may not support the formal, task-oriented roles.

Members perform these roles in different degrees. High clarity in roles leads to high performance
of the group.

2. Group Norms and Conformity : Group norms are acceptable standards or expectations
shared by group members. They relate to output levels, absenteeism, promptness, dress, loyalty,
etc.

Norms have powerful influence on performance. Members perform according to group norms.

Purpose of Group Norms

Group norms serve the following purposes :

(i) They define acceptable standards of behaviour.

(ii) They promote group cohesiveness.

(iii) They promote consistent, uniform and predictable behaviour.

 23

(iv) They promote group discipline.

(v) They promote group culture as members interact with each other.

(vi) They provide order by restraining discretionary powers of members.

(vii) They ensure group effectiveness and survival.

Enforcement of Group Norms

Group norms can be enforced in the following ways :

(i) Members conform to norms as they want to be accepted by groups.

(ii) Members perceive rewards like esteem, recognition, appreciation, acceptance and social
satisfaction through group norms.

(iii) Conformity to group norms strengthens group membership.

(iv) Penalties for non-conformance (disapproval, social boycott, loss of membership etc.) also
promotes conformity to group norms.

3. Group Cohesiveness : Group cohesiveness is the degree to which members are attracted to
the group and share the group goals. It is “the degree to which members are attracted to a group,
are motivated to remain in the group, and are mutually influenced by one another.”

Group cohesiveness has the following merits :

● It strengthens group goals and group norms.

● Cohesive groups perceive management as supportive to group goals. They
perform better than less cohesive groups.
● Members communicate freely and better understand the feelings, emotions
and behaviour of others.
● Members collectively engage in decision-making. This provides higher
satisfaction than less cohesive groups.
● Mutual trust and confidence develop strong inter-personal relationships.
● Membership of cohesive groups is stable. Members accept innovations
and change.
 24

● High compatibility between group goals and organisational goals

motivates to perform better than less cohesive groups.
● Members achieve higher job satisfaction than members of less cohesive
groups.
● Groups that perform similar activities do not depend on others to get the
work done.

Group cohesiveness leads to positive consequences when members accept change in

organisational policies. Group norms are high, resistance to change is low and people
subordinate group goals in favour of organisational goals.

4. Group Decision-Making : Group decision-making is more effective as decisions are based on

extensive information. Groups spend substantial time on finding problems, solutions and their
implementation. Group decisions involve superiors and subordinates which develop diverse,
open and new ideas.

5. Group Communication : Groups communicate through informal channels. Messages are

clearly understood by members. There is effective feedback from group members which corrects
misunderstanding. It is an important supplement to formal communication. Information gaps in
formal communication are filled by informal channels. It promotes healthy inter-personal
relationships and speeds up the flow of information.

Though rumours spread through informal channels, judicious use of this channel avoids gossips
and rumours. Informal channels help to attain group goals, solve group problems, improve group
performance, increase group cohesiveness and resolve group conflicts.

6. Informal leadership : Though formal leaders lead the group, informal leaders emerge by
common consent of group members. They direct group activities. They are confident and
assertive to perform :

(i) Task role : They help members to achieve the formal goals. They provide unity of action to
group efforts. Sales manager, for example, assigns territories to sales people and supervises the
new sales force members.
 25

(ii) Group building and maintenance role : Leaders provide emotional, psychological and
social support to group members. They build group image and strengthen their solidarity. They
settle non-work related disputes and keep members attached to the group.

It is often difficult for the same person to perform both these roles. Different members, therefore,
become leaders for different roles.

10. Factors Affecting Group Processes and Functions

Functions and processes performed by groups are affected by the following factors :

1. Group size : Group size affects functions of the group. Smaller groups complete tasks faster
than larger ones. They are more productive than large groups. Large groups, on the other hand,
generate more facts, collect diverse and open viewpoints, generate more solutions to problems.

However, with increase in size of the group, contribution of individual member tends to decline.
Responsibility for group goals gets dispersed amongst larger number of members. Relationship
between individual input and group output cannot be maintained as group results cannot be
attributed to single person. This reduces efficiency of the group. Large groups develop
sub-groups, restrict participation by members, take time in making decisions, promote
dominance by few etc.

What, then, is the optimum group size? It should be large enough to develop diverse viewpoints
and small enough to fix responsibility and promote inter-personal interaction. Following points
affect the optimum group size:

(i) Groups should have odd number of members. It eliminates ties when decisions are taken by
vote. Odd number facilitates decision-making.

(ii) Usually five or seven makes the optimum size. It is neither too large nor too small. It allows
diverse inputs and avoids negative outcomes of large groups.

2. Group composition : It represents the kind of individuals that make a group and affect its
performance. Groups can be heterogeneous or homogeneous.

Heterogeneous groups have dissimilar individuals, in terms of age, gender, education,

experience, skills, culture etc.
 26

Homogeneous groups have similar individuals.

Heterogeneous groups are generally more effective as they have people with diverse skills and
backgrounds. There may be conflicting opinions but they perform better than homogeneous
groups.

3. Group goals and tasks : Groups are formed for some goals and perform tasks to achieve
those goals. These goals promote cooperation and also result in role conflict. The tasks also vary
in their skills, complexity, competence, etc.

These factors affect group performance in the following ways :

(i) Group size affects unity in group activities, formation of sub-groups, interaction amongst
group members etc.

(ii) Group composition assignes roles to group members, affects quality of group leadership,
group satisfaction etc.

(iii) Groups goals and tasks affect group decision-making, group communication, group
cohesiveness etc.

11. Group Behaviour

Group behaviour defines the way people behave with each other. It explains the roles performed
by members of the group. It reflects unity and commitment of members towards group and
organisational goals. Group members empathise and actively interact with each other. Though
groups expect the members to obey group norms, some difference in roles is evident. Differences
develop novel and creative ideas.

George Homans describes three elements of group behaviour : activities, sentiments and
interaction.

Activities are the tasks performed by group members. Members perform activities that achieve
goals of the organisation.

While performing formal activities, members form small informal groups on the basis of
sentiments.

The sentiments develop interaction for social satisfaction.

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This interplay of activities, sentiments and interaction results in group behaviour which is
different from formal behaviour. It defines group behaviour which is more inclined towards need
satisfaction than formal goals of the organisation.

Members reinforce their attitudes and sentiments and tend to do tasks different from those
defined by formal organisation.

12. Stages in Group Development

The model of group development was first proposed by Bruce Tuckman in 1965. He presented a
model of five stages of group development: Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing and
Adjourning.

All these phases are necessary and inevitable for the team to grow, face challenges, find
solutions, plan work, and deliver results.

A team cannot be expected to perform right when it is formed. Forming a team is just like
maintaining a relationship. It takes time, patience, support and efforts to go through recognisable
stages as members move from collection of strangers to a united group with common goals.

These stages are explained below:

1. Forming Stage (Orientation)

The first stage of group development is the forming stage. At this stage,the group just starts to
come together and is described with anxiety and uncertainty.
 28

A person’s behaviour is driven by his desire to be accepted by other members of the group.
Conflict, controversy, misunderstanding and personal opinions are avoided even though
members have just begun to form impressions of each other and understand what the group will
do together.

At the forming stage, members understand group purpose, determine how the team is going to be
organised and who will be responsible for what. They discuss major phases of group goal that
include rough project schedule, outlining general group rules regarding when they will meet and
discover what resources will be available for the group to use.

At this stage, group members learn what to do, how the group will operate, what is expected, and
what is acceptable.

2. Storming Stage (Power Struggle)

The second stage of group development is the storming stage. At this stage, disputes and
competition are high because members have understand the work and a general feel of
belongingness towards the group prevails.

The dominating group members emerge, while less confrontational members stay in their
comfort zone.

Issues like leadership, authority, rules, policies, norms, responsibilities, structure, evaluation
criteria and reward systems arise during this stage. They help the group move to the next stage.

3. Norming Stage (Cooperation and Integration)

At this stage, it becomes enjoyable for the members to work together. Group interaction becomes
easier, cooperative and productive. There is mutual give and take, open communication, bonding,
and mutual respect.

Disputes or conflicts are comparatively easy to be resolved and the group gets back on track.

Though group leadership is important, the facilitator usually steps back a little and lets the group
members take initiative to move forward together.
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4. Performing Stage (Synergy)

Now the group is clear about its needs. It moves forward to work for the goals for which it is
formed. The group becomes really united to perform.

At this stage, the morale of group members is high as they actively acknowledge the talent, skills
and experience that each member brings to the group. A sense of belongingness prevails and
group remains focused on its purpose and goal.

Members are flexible, interdependent, and trust each other. Leadership is distributive and
members willingly adapt to needs of the group.

5. Adjourning Stage (Closure)

This stage of group is usually reached when the task has been successfully completed. The
project is close to end and team members look forward to move in different directions.

This stage looks at the well-being of the team rather than handling the team through the original
four stages of team growth.

13. Group Cohesiveness

Group cohesiveness is the attraction, loyalty and commitment of members to group goals. It is
“the degree to which members are attracted to a group, are motivated to remain in the group, and
are mutually influenced by one another.”

Determinants of Group Cohesiveness

I. Factors that Increase Cohesiveness

Members of a cohesive group share common goals, remain attached to one another, conform to
group standards and unitedly work to achieve the goals. The following factors increase group
cohesiveness :

1. Similar attitudes, values, beliefs and interests increase group cohesiveness, facilitate
communication and develop understanding amongst group members.

2. Inter-group competition increases cohesiveness of each group as the goal is same. A basketball
championship, for example, increases cohesiveness of each team to win the match.
 30

3. Liking and attraction for each other increases group cohesiveness.

4. Success in group goals promotes group cohesiveness.

5. Size of the group also determines its cohesiveness. Small groups are generally more cohesive
than big groups.

6. Consensus on group goals increases cohesiveness.

7. Dependence of members on each other to achieve group goals increases group cohesiveness.

II. Factors that Decrease Cohesiveness

When members are not strongly bonded to work, it declines group cohesiveness.

1. Increase in size of the group decreases cohesiveness.

2. When members have conflicting opinions, group cohesiveness declines.

3. While inter-group competition increases cohesiveness, intra-group competition decreases

cohesiveness. Intra-group competition (competition amongst members of the same group)
promotes individual goals at the cost of group goals.

4. If less dominant members surrender to the views of dominant members, this declines group
cohesiveness.

5. Unpleasant group interaction, dissimilarity amongst attitudes, beliefs and values decrease
cohesiveness.

6. Involvement in activities outside the group and competition amongst members for resources
within the group reduces group cohesiveness.

7. Heterogeneous groups with members from different age groups, job responsibilities,
qualification and status decease cohesiveness.

COOPERATION
Cooperation is an integrating activity and is believed to be the opposite of competition. The word
“cooperation” is derived from the two Latin words “co” meaning together and “operari” meaning
to work. It is thus a joint activity in pursuit of common goals or shared rewards. It is goal
oriented and conscious form of social interaction. Actually it involves two elements – (i)
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common end and (ii) organised effort. It is the process by which individuals or groups combine
their effort, in a more or less organised way for the attainment of common objective. Generally
co-operation means working together for a common objective. In many festivals, volunteers
work together to collect money from different parts and want to organise the program
successfully and everybody want to stretch forward their hands to celebrate the occasion
successfully. Among the members of the group, there seems to be indication of good interaction
process. All of them behave in co-operative manner. Co-operation is brought about by several
factors which includes the following:
● desire for individual benefits
● desire to give and share
● total decision on common purposes
● situational necessity and
● desire to achieve larger goals.

Types of Cooperation
Direct cooperation: The essential characteristics of this kind of cooperation are that people do
in company the thing which can also do separately. In this category cooperating individuals do
things of common interest together and perform identical functions. Playing together, worshiping
together are the examples of direct co-operation.
Indirect cooperation: In this type of cooperation individual work towards a common end each
has his own specialised functions. Thus, we can say that indirect cooperation is obtained when
people perform dissimilar tasks towards a common end, i.e., each has its specialised role to play.
In the modern society it is the indirect cooperation which is more in play than the direct
cooperation because technological changes require specialisation of skills and functions.
Primary cooperation: There is an identity of interest between the individual and the group. It is
the cooperation which is found in primary groups such as family. Not only family but also peer
groups is also called primary cooperation where people have to choose face-to-face relations. We
can also say that interest of the individual merge with the interest of the primary group.
Secondary cooperation: This type of cooperation is generally found in the secondary group,
viz., government, industry, church and trade union etc.
 32

Tertiary cooperation: This is the interaction between various big and small group to meet a
particular situation. Here the individual or group who wants to compete with one another, come
together and cooperate with each other for a specific purpose. In such type of cooperation the
attitudes of the cooperating parties are purely opportunistic.

Role of Cooperation
It is a universal phenomenon. Cooperation for human beings is both a psychological and social
necessity. Individual as well as collective goals can not be achieved without cooperation.
Cooperation is essential for maintenance of social order. We can not do anything without
cooperation, if we are to live as members of the society. Family members cooperate with each
other in terms of sharing economic, emotional and social requirements of one another. All the
activity in each and every family is done in a cooperative way. People learn their first lesion in
cooperation as members of the family. The physical, mental and even the spiritual needs of the
individual remain unsatisfied if he does not agree to cooperate with his fellow members.

COMPETITION
Competition is the most important form of social struggle. According to Anderson and Parker,
“Competition is that form of social action in which we strive against each other for the
possession of or use of some limited material and non-material goods.” According to Sutherland,
Woodward and Maxwell, “Competition is an impersonal, unconscious continuous struggle
which, because of their limited supply, all may not have.” Competition is a form of interaction. It
is the struggle for position to gain economic status. It occurs whenever there is an insufficient
supply of anything that human being desire - insufficient in the sense that all cannot have as
much of it as they wish. Sometimes competition happens because of limited supply and also
difficult for equal distribution.

Characteristics of Competition
The characteristics of competition are:
● Competition is impersonal struggle. Park and Burgess defined competition as “interaction
without social contact.” We can say it is inter-individual struggle that is impersonal. It is
usually not directed against any individual or group in particular.
 33

● Competition is universal. There is no society which is devoid of competition. Not only

this, degree of competition may vary from society to society. It is very common for
society as well as culture.
● Competition is considered as conducive to progress. Competition provides the individuals
better opportunities to satisfy their desires for new experiences and recognitions.
● Both associative and non-associative dimensions of social processes indicate competition.
● Competition is mainly an unconscious activity but personal competition or rivalry is a
conscious activity.
● Competition may create emotional disturbances.
● Competition is an innate tendency.
● Competition is a social phenomenon.
● Degree of competition is determined by social values and social structure.

Value of Competition
Competition is indispensable in social life. Competition performs many powerful functions in
society. Sometimes competition is extremely dynamic. It performs five positive functions.
● It helps to determine the status and location of individual members in a system of
● hierarchy.
● It tends to stimulate economy, efficiency and inventiveness.
● It tends to enhance one’s ego.
● It prevents undue concentration of power in an individual or group of individuals.
● It creates respect for the rules of the same group.
We can say that competition determines who is to perform what function. According to Ross,
“Competition performs that broad function of assigning to each individual in his social world.
Competition is a progressive force which fulfils and does not necessarily destroy.” We can
further say that fair competition is conducive to economic as well as social progress.
Competition provides the individuals better opportunities to satisfy their desires for new
experiences and recognition. It believes in achieved status. Sometimes competition has some
negative function. It may lead to frustration. It may lead to monopoly. It may lead to conflict. It
may create emotional disturbances. It may develop unfriendly and unfavourable attitudes among
the persons or groups toward one another. It is true that unfair competition has the most
 34

disintegrating effects. Sometimes unlimited competition leads to monopoly. Competition and

cooperation differ in many respects. No society is exclusively competitive or exclusively
cooperative. Actually, social system is a balance between competitive and cooperative force. But
some competition is healthy and fair.

CONFLICT
Conflict is a conscious action. It is a deliberate intent to oppose. We can say that conflict is
universal. Not only this, conflict lacks continuity. Besides this, it is a personal activity.
According to Gillin and Gillin, “Conflict is the social process in which individuals or groups
seek their ends up directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence.” Green
defined, “Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist and coerce the will of another or
others.” Conflict is acompetition in its more occasional, personal and hostile forms. It is a
process of seeking to obtain rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors. It is inherent
in every society or social system. Conflict is apparently noted when an individual or a group
seeks to attain its own end. Conflict is the opposite of cooperation. Conflict may lead to
antagonism, violence or threat to peace. Conflict is also regarded as non-associative social
process.

Causes of Conflict
According to Freud and some other psychologists, the innate instinct for aggression in man is the
main cause of conflicts. Generally it arises from a clash of interest within groups and societies
and between groups and societies. The significant causes are:
Individual difference – It is true that, we, the human being, are not alike by nature, attributes,
interests, personalities etc. These differences may lead to conflict among the human being.
Cultural differences – The culture of a group differs from the culture of the other group. The
cultural differences among the groups sometimes cause tension and lead to conflict.
Differences of opinion regarding interest – In fact, the interests of different people or groups
occasionally clash. For example we can say that interests of the employers and employees vary
in many respect which may ultimately leads to conflict among them.
Social change – Social changes occur off and on in each and every society. Conflict is an
expression of social disequilibrium. Social change is the cultural log which leads to conflict.
 35

Characteristics of Conflict
● Although conflict is universal but it’s nature vary from society to society. No society is
characterised exclusively by conflict.
● Conflict is a conscious action. To achieve the respective goals the members oppose one
another.
● Conflict leads to social change. It is mainly an expression of disequilibrium.
● It primarily remains personal activity. Sometimes it acquires greater intensity and
involves many people. At first, it is manifested at the level of a particular group but
ultimately it involves the entire society.
● Asymmetrical social, political and economic relations coupled with the sense of relative
deprivation as the root cause of social conflict.
● Sometimes conflict is the life of society and progress emerges from a struggle in which
each individual, class or institution seeks to realise its own idea of good.
● We the people are organised into groups to seek a common goal, the probability of
conflict increases.
● All conflicts are not the same.
● We face conflicts on all levels as we have disagreements with family, friends and
co-workers.
● Conflict is an ever-present process in human relations.
● Unmanaged conflict is a threat to the survival of the group and ultimately tends to make
the group less effective.
● Conflict can occur within groups (intra-group conflict) and among groups (inter-group
conflict).

Effects of Conflict
Conflict sometimes creates positive and sometimes creates negative impact. The effects of
conflict are many and manifold. It is varied as well as unpredictable. We can say that the conflict
may have the following effects:
● Increases tension within or between the groups
● Disrupt normal activities
● Weaken group activities
 36

● Harmful to individuals
● Help to restructure the group
● Help to form new groups
● Gives positive result
● Improves decision-making process
● Increase bitterness
● Increase alienation
● Become violent
● Help to gain recognition
● Increase unity and cohesion
● Strengthen group boundaries
● Help to form new group.
Thus, we can say that conflict has both positive and negative effects. It is true that conflict
happens in any set-up and it creates impact on group members.

Types of Conflict
Conflict may be of various types, viz,
1) Overt and covert: Overt conflict has some manifestation but covert conflict or latent conflict
primarily remains invisible.
2) Personal and corporate: Personal conflict occurs within the group due to hostility, jealousy
etc., on the other hand, corporate conflict occurs among the groups within a society or between
two societies.
3) Temporary and perpetual: When conflict occurs among the individuals in the bus or in the
shop or in the road are called temporary conflict, on the other hand when conflict occurs between
two rival groups, then it is called perpetual conflict.
Conflict is not a continuous process. It may stretch for sometime. In each and every conflict there
is intermittent period of peace and social harmony.
According to Gillin and Gillin, conflict can be divided into five types, viz.,
Personal conflict – It is the conflict between two persons within the same group.
Racial conflict – It is the result of the feeling or racial superiority or inferiority.
Class conflict – It is the conflict between two classes.
 37

Political conflict – It is the conflict between parties of political power.

International conflict – It is the conflict between two nations.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Activities rarely go exactly the way you expect them to. Conflicts can occur at any time, their
causes can be many and varied, predictable or unpredictable. Conflict can occur within the group
or between individuals. Human nature dictates that we cannot and will not all agree with the
same things at the same time in the same way so be realistic and accept that during your project
you will definitely experience, and have to deal with, some degree of conflict.
The key to dealing effectively with conflict is to remain alert, be prepared, keep your cool and
above all else do not become involved in the conflict.

COMMON CAUSES OF CONFLICT AND HOW TO RESOLVE THEM

Timing: Too many late nights, long sessions or excursions can lead to late starts, low energy
levels and lack of interest in the focus of the project. The use of evaluation tools like Mood
Meters and Temperature Gauges will help you to check out feelings and energy levels regularly
and adapt your programme or activity to meet the current mood.
Feedback: Poorly delivered feedback can be misunderstood or perceived as criticism even
though this was not the intention of the speaker. When giving feedback, is important to respect
the feelings of others, to focus on what they said or did and to give reasons for your point of
view. It is better to say, “I disagree strongly with what you have just said because....” rather than
“How can you be so stupid, don't you see that?”
Inappropriate activities: It is inevitable that not all activities will suit all the participants all of
the time. Be aware of the needs of all the participants in the group and of any sensitive emotions
which might be triggered by a particular activity or part of it, make sure everyone knows that
they are at no time under any pressure to say or reveal anything about themselves that they do
not feel comfortable with, allow people time to warm up before and wind down afterwards,
remember to allow enough time for debriefing and discussion so that everyone feels that their
opinions and participation are valued.
Responsibilities: Some people thrive on responsibility others avoid it like the plague. Some
people have a lot of responsibility at home others have very little so keep in mind that for some
 38

participants this may be a completely new and very scary experience. Make sure that all
participants are comfortable and understand what they are being asked to do. Don’t hesitate to
intervene if you think that something isn’t appropriate. Remember that the participants are
experts in their own lives, strengths and capabilities so never impose anything, let them decide
what they want to be responsible for and support them through the process.

Group Norms
Group norms play an undeniably important role in any organization. Without these
well-specified or implicit rules, working as a team would be quite chaotic. Whether they govern
the dress code, meeting attendance, or reaction to management decisions, norms provide a
reliable and consistent framework which ultimately supports clear communication and
collaboration.
Definition of Group Norms in a Business Context
Group norms can be defined as the shared expectations and rules that guide the behaviour of
people within social groups. In a business context, these norms often relate to professional
conduct and establish standards for behaviour within the workplace.
Group Norms: The shared expectations and rules that guide the behaviour of individuals within
social groups.
You find them in every office, no matter the industry or culture. Some group norms might be
explicitly stated, like the company's code of conduct or rules regarding punctuality. Others are
rather implicit, like an understanding not to interrupt others during meetings.
Furthermore, such norms can be positive or negative. Positive norms promote team cohesion,
encourage productivity and contribute significantly to a positive work culture. Negative norms,
on the other hand, might reduce group efficiency, hamper creativity and foster a toxic work
environment.
For example, in a project team, a positive norm might be the expectation that everyone
contributes equally to the work. A negative norm might be the acceptance of passing blame onto
others whenever something goes wrong.
In some organizations, there are also norms related to tolerance and diversity. These norms
actively promote respect for all employees, regardless of their gender, race, age, or religious
beliefs. Enterprises following such norms often boast diverse and inclusive workforces.
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Examples of Group Norms

Group norms can be extraordinarily diverse, as they're reflective of individual companies, their
cultures, and their employees. Though norms can vary greatly, some common examples recur in
many business contexts.
Dress Code: In many organizations, there are specific norms related to what is considered
suitable attire for the workplace. These norms can be explicitly stated or, in some cases, are
implicit, determining how casually or formally one should dress.
Communication: Communication norms often govern how employees should talk to each other
and to their superiors. These can encompass norms about promptness in replying to emails or
norms about when it's appropriate to use certain communication channels.
Meeting Etiquette: Norms related to meetings are also fairly common and involve aspects like
punctuality, preparedness, active participation, and respect for others' speaking time.
Consider a software development company where punctuality is highly valued. The group norm
has developed such that all employees are expected to arrive on time for work as well as for all
meetings. If an employee is consistently late, they're considered disrespectful and
unprofessional. In this case, the norm directly influences employees' behaviours and shapes the
workplace culture.
Understanding these norms is essential for both aspiring managers and employees seeking a
harmonious work atmosphere. This understanding can be the key to avoiding unnecessary
conflict and fostering a positive, productive work culture.
The Role and Importance of Group Norms in the Workplace
Across all sectors and business structures, group norms substantially influence day to day
interactions and overall productivity. Most importantly, they build consensus within the team,
enabling members to understand what is expected of them and reciprocally, knowing what they
can expect from others. Group norms play a significant role in conflict resolution, reducing
misunderstanding and helping to maintain harmony within the team. By providing consistency,
they speed up decision-making processes, allow for smoother workflow and ultimately support
efficient task achievement. Moreover, group norms facilitate group cohesion and positively
impact the psychological safety of team members, making them more comfortable expressing
their ideas. They thus encourage creativity and innovation, invaluable assets in any modern
workplace.
 40

Examining Norms Examples in the Workplace

Let's delve deeper into understanding some of the common norms seen within a workplace. For
instance, norms could shape the way employees approach a project, the ways in which they
communicate or even the manner in which they handle conflict. These can be broadly divided
into procedural norms, interactional norms and personal norms.
Procedural Norms: These norms govern the organisation and execution of tasks within the
business. They impact how meetings are run, how deadlines are set or what channels of
communication should be used.
Interactional Norms: These norms guide how team members should interact with each other.
They include aspects like giving constructive feedback, respectful disagreement, offering support
to colleagues, and more.
Personal Norms: These are norms which relate to an individual's responsibilities within a team.
They encompass personal ownership over initiatives, punctuality, professional growth, and
career development.
Every group has its unique norms, evolving over time based on business needs, industry
standards, management style, and internal culture. They are often unspoken, forming organically
as the group interacts. However, they can also be explicitly set, particularly in new teams or
when a need to reset the culture arises.
Consider a software development team working on a joint project. Here, a typical procedural
norm could be the use of a specific project management tool for tracking progress. This norm
helps standardise their workflow. An example of an interactional norm might be maintaining
open communication channels for everyone to express their views on project tasks freely. A
personal norm could be that everyone tests their code thoroughly before committing the changes.

How Firm are Group Norms and Rules in a Business Setting

Group norms in a business context aren't written in stone. They are not steady and static rules;
instead, they're often flexible and dynamic, reflecting the changing nature of teams and
businesses. Over time, norms can change as the group evolves, new people join or the business
environment transitions. Therefore, it’s crucial to re-evaluate and reassess norms regularly,
considering the impact they have on team functioning and business success.
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Adherence to group norms can also differ depending on certain factors. There can be conforming
behaviour, in which team members follow norms because they agree with them, while
compliance occurs when members follow norms to avoid punishments. Resistance is when team
members decide to challenge or break the set norms.
Consider a firm that values innovation and encourages its employees to constantly question the
norm. Innovation by nature involves disruptive thinking and hence challenging the existing set of
norms - this can lead to the evolution of new norms which could positively influence the firm's
growth trajectory. Hence, it becomes clear that not all norms are rigid and some have a built-in
flexibility.
Group norms often represent the collective decisions of all team members, fostering a shared
understanding and providing a guideline for expected behaviours. However, they shouldn't stifle
individuality and creativity. Striking the right balance between compliance with group norms and
encouraging unique inputs is key to achieving optimal performance in a business setting.

Transactional Analysis
Transactional analysis is a very popular topic that we deliver on our Management Training and
Leadership Development Training programmes. You may not have considered this much before,
but when you are conversing with another person, the one who is talking could be said as giving
the transaction between the two of you ‘stimuli and the other person is giving the ‘response’.
The conversation is then transposed by the receiver until they decide it’s their turn to be the
transaction’s stimulator, and they start talking, while the other ‘responds’ accordingly.
You could call this idea a transaction of ideas.
When you identify the processes that make up these transactions, you could call it an analysis of
the transaction. Hence the term ‘transactional analysis’ (TA)
As SimplyPsychology.org describes it:
“Transactional analysis is the method used to analyse this process of transactions in
communication with others. It requires us to be aware of how we feel, think, and behave during
interactions with others.”
It recognises that our personality is driven by different ‘ego states’, first mooted by Sigmund
Freud. These are the systems we use to interact with others.
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The initial proponent of the model was Eric Berne, He was born in 1910 in Montreal, Canada,
His studies took him in a different direction to Freud, but the ego states provided a firm
foundation for him to develop his theories of the ‘Parent, Adult and Child’ states.
It’s considered that our childhood experiences have a big effect on how we live the rest of our
lives and Berne’s work shows how the interactions between our ‘states’ can drive our overall life
experiences with ourselves and others. Those younger experiences can have an unconscious
effect on the way we think and behave.
For example, if our parents reacted in a certain way to us when we misbehaved, it can awaken a
replay of that experience when we are gown up and make us behave similarly. Berne proposed
we develop a kind of ‘life script’ that dictates how we unconsciously react to situations when we
encounter them.
This is often driven by our desire for survival, a key component of the brain’s defence
mechanism. We tend to respond to communications and interactions based on earlier memories
or emotional tendencies.
Transactional Analysis Ego States
These life scripts have a profound effect on how we think, feel, and behave. We are conditioned
to respond in a certain way, based on the results we have achieved with that type of behaviour
before.
If someone is ‘conflict-averse’, it may be due to the circumstances they experienced while
growing up as a child. If someone has a short-fuse and reacts angrily to the most innocuous of
situations, there’s a possibility he or she was conditioned that way from experiences at an early
age.
Hence, the development of the ‘script’ by which we decide to behave.
Changing this script is the aim of transactional analysis psychotherapy. Societal or experience
scripting can be replaced with co-operative, collaborative behaviour through discussions on the
analysis of TA.
The three ego states or ways of being can be likened to three phases of life we experience
How we respond to situations and stimulate the other’s response in a conversation can depend on
several areas:
How did we respond to similar influences when we were young?
What past traumas did we endure?
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How is the other treating us?

What messages are our brains interpreting and what meanings are we getting?
How important is the relationship I have with this person?
These and many other questions can determine firstly how we respond to the transaction we are
having, and secondly how we will be stimulated to carry on the transaction.

This is exactly why Team Leader Apprenticeships, among the courses we offer, have gained
significant popularity! Through these apprenticeships and courses, leaders can begin to
understand and appreciate why they behave in a certain way and can then take that on to how
their people and teams behave the way that they do.

The Child State

Transactional analysis discussed two components of the child state: adapted and free child.
This ego state builds on the reinforcements we were given when a child.
Were you given praise often?
Did your parents admonish you for certain behaviours?
Was your childhood filled with happy memories or negative experiences?
Depending on how you were brought up, your experiences will still have effects on our
transactions today.
The adapted child tries to please others and likes to be liked, so they act in accordance with
others’ wishes. They could come across as submissive or timid, allowing others to control their
feelings, sometimes without standing up for themselves.
The free child state can be seen as a spontaneous nature, intelligent, free-flowing, innovative and
creative in their thinking. This could be part of the conditioning where the child was allowed to
be free to express their ideas and had more freedom to adapt to various situations without being
told to ‘be quiet’ or ‘sit down and shut up’.
There are, of course, different levels of each of these two components, so it would be incorrect to
say a person is one or the other when they paly the child’s role in a transaction.
One way to think of a child’s response is to whom are they interacting in this way? If to a
‘parent’ ego state, you may see the person not wanting to disagree with that other person, just
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accepting orders to keep the peace. Or they may be flippant and joke around, covering up for
some inadequacy seen by the parent model.

The Parent State

The parent is an ego state reflected on how the person’s parent figures brought them up. If a
stronger parent figure was a grandparent or teacher, that may have had a bigger effect on how the
person feels an adult needs to respond to situations.
Again, there are two components to an adult state: Critical/controlling, and nurturing.
Eric Berne believed that the biggest contribution to how we view the parent state was decided in
the first few years of life. One way of looking at a parent state is concerning the judgements we
have of others and of situations. Our rules and standards often come from these parental figures.
How a person thinks someone else should behave often comes from the examples placed on us
by parental figures.
A critical parent state may well judge others by what they ‘should’ or shouldn’t’ do. Their rules
are their rules, and everyone should abide by them. If they don’t, then they are judges as wrong,
or inconsistent, or selfish, or similar. Feedback could be delivered in an aggressive,
passive-aggressive or harsh way.
A nurturing parent ego state would drive a person to be more understanding and softer in their
approach. They would see a situation without judging, attempting to be more curious as to why a
person would say or do something. A nurturing disposition may be helpful in trying to calm
situations down or when establishing closer relationships.

The Adult State

This only has one component or division attached to it. Whereas the child and parent state may
be driven by past experiences and conditioning, the adult state considers the here and now
situation.
The adult state is more open to discussion, more curious as to why people feel the way they do,
has more time for sifting through data and information, is more respectful of others’ opinions, is
willing to collaborate and compromise, and enjoys more close and healthy relationships.
We often find the adult state is employed when making decisions that will affect others or
solving problems in a working environment.
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How the states interact

Depending on what state we choose to adopt, a transaction with others could thrive or whither
away to nothing. It could make a difference between building a strong relationship with another
or causing a deep division between people.
Eric Berne recognised that we experience positive and negative interactions all through our lives
and referred to these as ‘strokes’. A positive stroke makes us feel good about ourselves, whereas
a negative interaction causes the opposite effect.
How each person you interact with gives and receives these strokes can make a big difference in
how they perceive each other.
Which of these ego states do you believe achieves the best results in most situations?
TA concludes that adult to adult communication is the one that elicits the most helpful results.
Here, we show how the ego states interact:
● Complementary Transaction
● Ulterior Transaction
● Crossed Transaction
Complementary Transactions
This can be assumed when the ego states of the people in conversation are parallel to each other,
as in the drawing above.
You can think of this as the sender being in one state and the receiver being in the same state,
complementing to the ego states instead of being challenged by it.
Naturally, the best state to be in for this, is the adult-adult state, as the two people work in
harmony with each other so they can find common areas of agreement rather than conflict.
However, if both are in a complementary but child-child state, you may not find decisions being
made, or ending up simply in a griping or blaming session.
Similarly, if both are in a parent state, you may find both of them wanting their own way and still
not able to find solutions to their issues. Hence, an adult-adult complementary state is the best
one to find results.

Ulterior Transactions
You’ll have heard of ‘ulterior motives’ or ‘hidden agendas’. This is where a person’s behaviour
or statements say one thing, while surreptitiously or subconsciously meaning something else.
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This can be the essence of an ulterior transaction, where an underlying, subtle message from one
state could be interpreted as another state by the other person.
For example, a boss may say ‘I have confidence that you can do this project, though it will need
a lot of due diligence and checking to get it done’
The receiver may see this as a challenge and their rebellious child ego may come to the fore,
saying something like ‘I’ll show him that I can do it without all that checking, just you wait and
see!”

Crossed Transactions
This is when the ego states don’t match each other and can cause conflict in one way or another.
A crossed transaction will require one or both parties to shift perspectives so the communication
can carry on at a reasonable level.
An example might be where a customer has a very demeaning attitude to you, complaining that
you should be their servant and get a move on, or they’ll take their business elsewhere. Their
critical parent state can cause you to take an adapted child state, wanting to please the aggressive
parent, not wanting to cause a scene, and bowing down to the authoritarian stance the customer is
taking.
Crossed transactional responses can cause people to break relationships and develop a character
response that does not contribute to good problem-solving, so watch out if your tendency is to
mismatch at any of the TA levels.

Roles
Great English essayist William Shakespeare said, “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and
women merely players”.
Using the same metaphor, all group members are actors, each playing a role. By this term, we
mean a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a
social unit.
The understanding of role behavior would be dramatically simplified if each of us chose one role
and “played it out” regularly and consistently. Unfortunately, we are required to play a number of
diverse roles, both on and off our jobs.
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Role Identity
There are certain attitudes and actual behaviors consistent with a role, and they create the role
identity.
People have the ability to shift roles rapidly when they recognize that the situation and its
demands clearly require major changes. For instance, when union stewards were promoted to
supervisory positions, it was found that their attitudes changed from pro-union to
pro-management within a few months of their promotion.
When these promotions had to be rescinded later because of economic difficulties in the firm, it
was found that the demoted supervisors had once again adopted their pro-Union attitudes.
Role Perception
One view of how one is supposed to act in a given situation is a role perception. Based on an
interpretation of how we believe we are supposed to behave, we engage in certain types of
behavior.
Where do we get these perceptions? We get them from stimuli all around us – friends, books,
movies, television. Many current law enforcement officers learned their roles from reading
books, while many of tomorrow’s lawyers will be influenced by watching the actions of
attorneys in law and order or the practice.
Role Expectations
Role expectations are defined as how others believe you should act in a given situation. How you
behave is determined to a large extent by the role defined in the context in which you are acting.
For instance, the role of a University teacher is viewed as honesty, dignity, calm and quiet, while
a football coach is seen as aggressive, dynamic, and inspiring to his players. In the workplace, it
can be helpful to look at the topic of role expectations through the perspective of the
psychological contract.
There is an unwritten agreement that exists between employees and their employer. This
psychological contract sets out mutual expectations – what management expects from workers,
and vice versa.
Role Conflict
When an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations, the result is role conflict. It
exists when an individual finds that compliance with one role requirement may make it more
difficult to comply with another (Peterson, 1995).
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Status
Status, that is, a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others –
permeates society far beyond the walls of high school. It would not be extravagant to rephrase
the preceding quotation to read. “In the status hierarchy of life, nothing doesn’t matter.”
Despite all attempts to make it more egalitarian, we have made little progress toward a classless
society.
Even the smallest group will develop roles, rights, and rituals to differentiate its members.
Status is an important factor in understanding human behavior because it is a significant
motivator and has major behavioral consequences when individuals perceive a disparity between
what they believe their status to be and what others perceive it to be. ,

Status and Norms

Status has been shown to have some interesting effects on the power of norms and pressures to
conform.
For instance, high-status members of groups often are given more freedom to deviate from
norms than are other group members.
High-status people also are better able to resist conformity pressures than lower- status peers. An
individual Who is highly valued by a group but who doesn’t much need or care about the social
rewards the group provides is particularly able to pay minimal attention to conformity norms
(Harvey A Consaivi, 1960).

Status Equity
It is important for group members to believe that the status hierarchy is equitable. When inequity
is perceived it creates disequilibrium, which results in various types of corrective behavior
(Greenberg, ms).
The trapping that go with formal positions are also important elements in maintaining equity.
When we believe there is an inequity between the perceived ranking of an individual and the
status accouterments that person is given by the organization, we are experiencing status
incongruence.
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An example of this kind of incongruence is the more desirable office location being held by a
lower-ranking individual. Pay incongruence has long been a problem in the insurance industry,
where top sales agents often earn two to five times more than senior corporate executives.
The result is that it is very hard for insurance companies to entice successful agents into,
management positions.
Our point is that employees expect the things an individual has and receives to be congruent with
his or her status.

Status and Culture

Before we leave the topic of status, we should briefly address the issue of cross-cultural
transferability. Do cultural differences affect status?
The answer is a resounding yes (Harris & Moran, 1996). The importance of status does vary
between cultures. The French, for example, are highly status conscious.