Last lecture (revision) " a1i #

Let A = (aij ) be an n × m-matrix and let a i = ..

.
ani
be column i of A.
• The matrix equation Ax = b can be written in the
equivalent form

x1 a 1 + x2 a 2 + · · · + xm a m = b.

" λ1
#
• Claim 1 The column vector .. is a solution
.
λm
of Ax = b if and only if

b = λ1 a 1 + · · · + λm a m .

• The system of equations Ax = b has either no

solution, exactly one solution, or infinitely many
solutions.

When are there infinitely many solutions?

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 • Claim 2 Suppose that the equation Ax = b has at
least one solution. Then the equation Ax = b has
an infinitely many solutions if and only if

λ1 a 1 + λ2 a 2 + · · · + λm a m = 0,

for some numbers λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λm ∈ R

which are not all zero.
Why?

Well, suppose that Ax = b has two solutions, say

Ay1 = b = Ay2
=⇒ A(y1 − y2 ) = b − b = 0.

=⇒ the equation Ax = 0 has a non-zero solution.

"λ #
1

That is, y1 − y2 = ... is a non-zero solution of

λm
Ax = 0.
Claim 1=⇒ λ1 a 1 + · · · + λm a m = 0, for some
λ1 , . . . , λm ∈ R.

Now, suppose that λ1 a 1 + · · · + λm a m = 0 for some

λ1 , . . . , λm ∈ R.

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 We have to show that the equation Ax = b has an
infinite number of solutions.

• Because λ1 a 1 + · · · + λm a m = 0, we know that

Ax = 0 has a solution, say Az = 0.

• We also know that Ay = b for some y.

• Therefore, A(y + tz) = Ay + tAz = b + t0 = b,

for any t ∈ R.

• Hence, there are an infinite number of solutions!!

• What Claim 2 really says is that if Ax = b has a

solution then the matrix equation Ax = b has
infinitely many solutions if and only if the matrix
equation Ax = 0 has a non–zero solution.

To put it another way, every solution of the

equation Ax = b has the form

x = y + z, where Ay = b and Az = 0

=⇒A(y + tz) = b, for any t ∈ R.

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 • Note. If the equation Ax = 0 has one non–zero
solution then Ay = 0 has an infinite number of
solutions.

• Solving the equation Az = 0 will play an

important role in this course!
• A linear equation of the form Ax = 0 is called a
homogeneous linear equation.

Example: Consider the system of equations:

u +2v +3w +4x +3y +z = 1
2u 4v +6w +7x +8y +8z = 4
−u −v −2w −3y −z = 4
• This has augmented matrix:
" 1 2 3 4 3 1 1 #
2 4 6 7 8 8 4
−1 −1 −2 0 −3 −1 4
R =R −2R
−−2−−−2−−−→1

R3 =R3 +R1
" #
1 2 3 4 3 1 1
0 0 0 −1 2 6 2
0 1 1 4 0 0 5

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 R =R
−−−2−−−
3
→
R3 =−R2
" 1 2 3 4 3 1 1 #
0 1 1 4 0 0 5
0 0 0 1 −2 −6 −2
Hence,the row reduced form of the augmentedmatrix is
1 2 3 4 3 1 1
 0 1 1 4 0 0 5 
 
 0 0 0 1 −2 −6 −2 
|{z} |{z} |{z}
free free free

Therefore,
 the general
 solution is
"u# −4−2q−3s−t
v 13−q−8s−24t
w
x =  q 
−2+2s+6t
y s
z
 −4  t  −2   3
  −1

13 −1 −8 −24
=  −2  + q  1 
0 + s  02  + t  06 
0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
| {z } | {z }

This is a three dimensional solution.

Note The free variables give the solution to the equation

Ax = 0.

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 " #
1
More examples: Let b = 4 .
10

For the two matrices below find a linear combination of

their columns which add
" up to#give the column vector
" b. #
100 1 01
A= 010 and B= 0 11 .
001 −2 3 1

Question: Why is this

" easier
# to do"for# the "matrix
# A?" #
1 1 0 0
For A, we see that 4 =b=1 0 +4 1 +10 0 .
10 0 0 1

For B, we have to solve the system of equations Bx = b.

In fact, we can also just write down the solution in this
case:
" # " # " # " #
1 1 0 1
4 =b= 0 +4 1 +0 1 .
10 −2 3 1

" #
1
Now take b = 4 and consider
7
" # " #
100 1 0 0
A= 010 and B= 0 1 −4 .
001 −2 3 3

Again, we want to find a linear combination of the columns

of A and B which add up to b.

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 " # " # " #
1 0 0
For A we see that b = 1 0 +4 1 +7 0 .
0 0 1

For B we have to solve the system of equations Bx = b

which corresponds to the augmented matrix:
" 1 0 0 1 #
0 1 −4 4
−2 3 3 7

The solution is as follows:

" # " #
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
R3 =R3 +2R1
0 1 −4 4 −−−−−−−−→ 0 1 −4 4
−2 3 3 7 0 3 3 9
" #
1 0 0 1
R3 =R3 −3R2
−−−−−−−−→ 0 1 −4 4
0 0 15 −3
" 1 0 0 1 #
1
R3 = 15 R3
−−−−−−−−−→ 0 1 −4 4
0 0 1 − 15
" # " # " # " #
1 1 0 0
Therefore, 4 =b= 0 + 3 15 1 − 1
5
−4 .
7 −2 3 3

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Geometric interpretations
(" # )
r1
Let Rn = .. : r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ∈ R the space of
.
rn
n × 1 column vectors.

• So R is the real line.

• R2 is the Cartesian plane.

• R3 is “three dimensional space”

• R4 is “four dimensional space”, and so on!

We would like to interpret the linear equation Ax = b

geometrically in R, R2 and R3 .

For R there is nothing to do: the equation

(a)x = b ⇐⇒ x = ab
has a unique solution if and only if a 6= 0.

b
If a 6= 0 then the solution x = a is a single point on the
real number line.

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The Null space of a matrix.

Let A be an n × m matrix, then the null space of the

matrix A is the set Null(A) = { x ∈ Rm : Ax = 0 }.

Suppose that the linear system Ax = b has at least one

solution, then we have seen that the following statements
are equivalent:

• The equation Ax = b has an infinite number of

solutions.

• The equation Ax = 0 has a non-zero solution.

• Null(A) 6= {0}.

• A non–zero linear combination of the columns of

A is equal to 0.

• det A = 0 (Math1002 or Math1014).

• 0 is an eigenvalue of A : Ax = 0⇐⇒Ax = 0x.

The null space of a matrix is important because when-
ever y and z are two solutions to an equation of the form
Ax = b then y − z ∈ Null(A).

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Properties of the Null space

Recall that Null(A) = { x ∈ Rm : Ax = 0 }.

Question: What “special properties” does Null(A) have?

• Null(A) = { x ∈ Rm : Ax = 0x } =
{0-eigenvectors of A}

• 0 ∈ Null(A), for any matrix A.

• If x, y ∈ Null(A) then x + y ∈ Null(A).
• If x ∈ Null(A) then −x ∈ Null(A).

• If x ∈ Null(A) and r ∈ R then rx ∈ Null(A).

These properties are characteristic of a vector space.

A vector space is just an abstract space which has the

properties above.

The essential point is that vector spaces capture what it

means for something to be linear.

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