91

TH
eil;ice of, EO
n RY
ideas. ;o OF
retical CL
iportant ASS
Inge.
AN
D
trol the CL
forces, ASS
STR
UG
:ntries, GL
E

Ian in
- UN
IV
ER
SA
:rafts. LI
TY
OF
Tkers CL
AS
S
k on. M
ar
x
c
rces h
ar
ac
ned
te
ri
ze
s
th
e
h
u
m
a
n
hi
st
or
y
as
th
e
hi
st
or
y
of
cl
as
s
st
ru
g
gl
es
;
'T
h
e
hi
st
or
y
of
al
l
hi
th
er
to
e
xi
st
in
g
hi
st
or
y
is
th
e
hi
st
or
y
of
cl
as
s
st
ru
g
gl
e"
.
H
e
sa
ys
th
at
e
x
ce
pt
in
th
e
p
er
io
d
of
pr
i
m
iti
v
e
c
o
m
m
u
ni
s
m
;
in
al
l
ot
h
er
p
er
io
ds
of
hi
st
or
y,
so
ci
et
y
ha
s
cl
as
se
s
an
d
cl
as
s
st
ru
g
gl
es
.
S
o
lo
n
g
as
th
er
e
is
e
q
ui
ta
bl
e
a
n
d
ju
st
di
st
ri
b
ut
io
n
of
m
at
er
ia
l
w
ea
lt
h,
th
er
e
is
n
o
cl
as
s
di
st
in
ct
io
n.

D
ur
in
g
th
e
p
er
io
d
of
pr
i
m
iti
v
e
co
m
m
u
ni
s
m
,
th
e
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
re
so
ur
ce
s
b
el
o
n
g
e
d
to
th
e
c
o
m
m
u
ni
ty
;
th
e
y
w
er
e
c
o
nt
ro
ll
e
d
b
y
th
e
co
m
m
u
ni
ty
.
S
o
th
er
e
w
as
h
o
cl
as
s
di
st
in
ct
io
n.
W
h
e
n
m
a
n
le
ft
th
e
st
a
g
e
of
pr
i
m
iti
v
e
c
o
m
m
u
ni
s
m
,
th
e
di
st
ri
b
ut
io
n
b
ec
a
m
e
u
n
e
q
u
al
a
n
d
cl
as
s
di
st
in
ct
io
n
m
a
d
e
it
s
a
p
p
ea
ra
n
ce
.
T
h
us
in
al
l
p
er
io
ds
of
hi
st
or
y,
th
er
e
e
xi
st
s
a
di
ff
er
e
n
ce
in
di
st
ri
b
ut
io
n
a
n
d
"
S
o
ci
et
y
di
vi
d
es
it
se
lf
in
to
cl
as
se
s,
th
e
pr
iv
il
e
g
e
d
a
n
d
di
s
p
o
ss
es
se
d'
!.
In
th
e
a
n
ci
e
nt
ti
m
e,
th
er
e
w
er
e
fr
ee
m
e
n
a
n
d
sl
a
v
es
,
p
at
ri
ci
a
ns
a
n
d
pl
e
b
ei
a
ns
;
in
th
e
M
id
dl
e
A
g
es
,
fe
u
d
al
lo
rd
s
a
n
d
se
rf
s,
A
lil
d
m
as
te
rs
a
n
d
jo
ur
n
e
y
m
e
n.
T
h
e
m
o
d
er
n
er
a
h
as
cl
as
s
di
ff
er
e
nt
ia
ti
o
n
-
b
o
ur
g
e
oi
si
e
a
n
d
pr
ol
et
ar
ia
t-
b
as
e
d
o
n
pr
iv
at
e
ca
pi
ta
li
st
o
w
n
er
sh
ip
.
DE
TE
R
MI
NA
NT
OF
CL
AS
S
PO
SI
TI
O
N

M
ar
x
h
ol
ds
th
e
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
fa
ct
or
to
b
e
th
e
k
e
y
fa
ct
or
in
d
et
er
m
in
in
g
cl
as
s
di
ff
er
e
nt
ia
ti
o
n:
C
la
ss
es
ar
e
fo
r
m
e
d
a
n
d
di
ff
er
e
nt
ia
te
d
w
it
h
re
fe
re
n
ce
to
th
e
o
w
n
er
sh
ip
of
m
ea
ns
of
m
at
er
ia
l
pr
o
d
u
ct
io
n.
T
h
os
e
w
h
o
o
w
n
th
e
m
e
a
n
s
of
pr
o
d
u
ct
io
n
c
o
ns
tit
ut
e
o
n
e
cl
as
s
a
n
d
th
os
e
w
h
o
o
w
n
n
o
m
ea
ns
of
pr
o
d
u
ct
io
n
fo
r
m
a
di
ff
er
e
nt
cl
as
s.
T
h
us
,
w
it
h
re
fe
re
n
ce
to
th
e
o
w
n
er
sh
ip
of
m
ea
ns
of
pr
o
d
u
ct
io
n,
t
w
o
cl
as
se
s
-
n
a
m
el
y,
th
e
pr
o
p
er
ti
e
d
cl
as
s
a
n
d
th
e
pr
o
p
er
ty
le
ss
cl
as
s
-
ar
e
fo
r
m
e
d.
It
is
th
es
e
t
w
o
cl
as
se
s
th
at
e
xi
st
th
ro
u
g
h
a
g
es
in
th
e
h
u
m
a
n
hi
st
or
y,
th
o
u
g
h
th
e
d
es
ig
n
at
io
ns
m
a
y
be
di
ff
er
e
nt
.
 92
Thus, according to Marx,, a person's class position is determined by se
his relation to the means of production. His occupation or income has r -
nothing to do with it. A person may be a carpenter by occupation. It is sot
only depending on whether he owns a shop or works for wages, that his
the
class placement is determined. If he owns a shop, he becomes a member -

of the propertied class (bourgeoisie). If he works for wages, he becomes a

member of the propertyless class (proletariat). in
sta
CLASS IN ITSELF
50
Thus, Marx, considers the relation of the individuals to the meads of 4
material production as the key factor in determining a class. People who cle
share the same relationship to the means of production comprise a class. 50
Those who own them form another class. However, for Marx, this relation 4
to the means of production is not sufficient to determine the class, as in th4
his view, it is not sufficient for a class to be merely a class in itself, but
it should also be a 'class for itself. ca
di
CLASS FOR ITSELF .
When the people comprise a class by having the same relation to the
means of production, it is only in such objective condition, they. constitute Cr
a class. At that stage, they constitute merely a 'class in itself '. But, they
will constitute a real class - 'class for itself ' only when they constitute a
class in subjective consciousness, that is, when .they. share sirrilla• ial

consciousness that they all belong to the same class. The small peasants
form a vast mass and live in identical conditions. They share the- same
relationships to land. But they are not conscious of the fact that they live
of
under the economic conditions that separate their mode of life,. their
interests and their culture from those of other classes.. Hence. they do, not h:
ix
constitute a class. ,

Thus, in Marx's view though same relation to the means of production

is a necessary condition for people to constitute a class, it is insufficient. U
For them,. to constitute a class, there must be a feeling of separation from
. ,
other social classes. Even here, Marx emphasizes that 'the feeling 'of
 93

In-ed by separation must be accompanied by a feeling of hostility towards other

ne has social classes. `Separate individuals form a class only to the extent that
n:- It is they must carry on a struggle against another class' (Raymond Aron).
hat his CLASSES IN THE CAPITALIST SOCIETY
nember All the features which Marx associates with class are found especially
omes a in the modern capitalist system. Though classes are formed in different
stages of history, Marx recognizes only the classes of the modern capitalist
society. The reason is that only in the capitalist society, class lines are
eats of clearly drawn. With reference to the means of material production, the
ale who society is neatly divided into two classes - the propertied bourgeoisie and
class. the propertyless proletariat. It is around these two classes that the motor
elation that turns the belt of history revolves.
, as in
By taking the means of production in their exclusive possession, the
but
capitOsts become the propertied class. The rest - the masses are
dispoSsessed of the means of production. The latter own nothing but
labour. It is the only marketable asset they have. Owning no other asset,
for economic necessity, they sell it and become the workers under the
to the
owners of means of production which provide increasingly the means of
.stitute
employment for the free labourers. The relations between the owners of
it, they
means of production and those who have nothing but labour, under such
itute a
conditions, crystallize into two classes, namely, the capitalists (whom Marx
similar .
asants' calls the bourgeoisie) and the workers (whom Marx calls the proletariat).
same
The dichotomous classification of the whole population into two classes
ey live
of bourgeoisie and proletariat is only an abstract model used by Marx in
their
Ins analysis of modern capitalist society. He does not discount the empirical
ico, not
reality and possibility for intermediate classes (groups) artisans, petite
bourgeoisie or small businessmen, merchants, peasant land owners. But
action
with the development of the capitalist regime, when the capitalists expand
lcient.
from. their economic `empire', these groups will be deprived of the property or
squeezed out of their business and drawn into the ranks of the proletariat.
ng of
This process Marx calls Proletarianization.
 94

Marx is emphatic that in the final stage of capitalism, there will

to
virtually be only two classes in the society - the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat. However, of the two classes, only the proletariat remains a solid :wa2
eco
class. They alone possess the potential for organizing themselves into a
class. The conditions of work and inaccessibility to the means of production
facilitate the emergence of solidarity and prevent competitiveness. When a lab
large majority of the population are reduced to the level of wage labour ciu;
and the capitalistic exploitation of the labour becomes intense, the working to
class becomes conscious of their common interests and predicament and, be
gets united. Also they get stimulated by an appropriate system of ideas fai.
that enables them to confront the bourgeoisie oppressors.
wo
On the other hand, there is no similar potentiality for the bourgeoisie
on
to get united. The competition in the market and the competitive mode of
production that characterize the capitalist system keep the bourgeoisie
divided. Though they may come together in political and ideological sectors,
they can never transcend their self-interests in the economic sphere. On eq
this account, even though the capitalists are divided among themselves by
du
economic competition, they could evolve an ideology and .a political system
of domination that could subserve their interests. The political power
and. Th
ideolog can substitute class• consciousness and unite the bourgeoisie. But
the bourgeoisie are inevitably to face their extinction because they are sure
to become the victims of the competitiveness that is inherent In the to
capitalist system. liv
ca
EXPLOITATION OF LABOUR
(p
Having control over the forces of, production including the labour
e
process, the bourgeoisie could easily exploit the prciletariat. The sole 'aim
of the bourgeoisie is to obtain maximum' profit in the business. As Stalin s)
writes, "the fundamental law of'capitalism is maximum profit". One who of
is bent on making maximum profit in one's business can realize the goal
by raising the prices, of the products.. But, as . the capitalist economy .t
comprises highly competitive business, the bourgeoisie cannot burn their e
fingers in• their business by raising the prices unilaterally. UnleSs all ti
agree
 95
len will
to raise the prices, such a step will not become successful. The easiest
and the
way for the bourgeoisie is then to exploit the workers on whom they have
s a solid
economic power. So they resort to naked exploitation of labour.
s into a
Auction Any commodity produced by a worker is solely the outcome of his
When a labour. It is just the labour objectified. So, its value is proportional to the
e labour quantity of the average human labour engaged in it. So, the wages payable to
working the worker in compensation for the labour power he has rendered must be
lent and equal to the amount of human labour. But the wages paid to the worker fall
of ideas beloW the amount of the human labour rented. In other words, the wages
fall below the value of the commodity. The capitalist exploits the worker by
expropriating half of the value of the human labour and pays only for the
irgeoisie remaining value of labour.
mode of
Further, the capitalist expropriates the surplus value of the labour of
irgeoisie
the workers. "The labour time necessary for the worker to produce a value
sectors,
equal to the one he receives in the form of wages is less than the actual
leFe: On
duration of his work". Let us say that a worker produces in five hours a
elves by
,

value equal to the one contained in his wage, but he works ten hours.
system
Thus he works half of his time for himself and the other half for the
wer and
employer. This surpluS value of the work done over and above the necessary
isle. But
are sure labour time is expropriated by the bourgeoisie. When the worker continues to

in the work, the capital which, vampire-like, only lives by sucking living laboUr, lives
.the more by sucking more labour'.

By successfully using their economic wealth and standing, the

labour capitalists manoeuver to make the legal (courts) and political system
;ole aim (parliament) subservient to them. This political power enables them to
s exploit the workers without any hindrance. As the legal and political
Stalin )n systems. are subservient to the capitalists, they carry on the exploitation of
e who the workers without any challenge.
the goal
in their incessant drive for greater and greater profits, the capitalists
conomy
tend to drive wages down to a minimal level - the bare level. required for
rn their
the. workers' subsistence. This they do since the 'wages are their biggest
01 agree