1. Define functional Dependency.

 Let P and Q be sets of columns, then : P functionally determines Q, written p→Q if and only if
any two rows that are equal on (all the attributes in) P must be equal on (all the attributes in) Q.
 In other words, the functional dependency holds if
 T1.P = T2.P, then T1.Q=T2.Q
 Where notation T1.P projects the tuple T1 onto the attribute in P.

2. List the anomalies of 1NF.

All the insertion, deletion and update anomalies are in 1NF relation.

3. What do you mean by trivial dependency?

In Trivial Functional Dependency, a dependent is always a subset of the determinant.
i.e. If X → Y and Y is the subset of X, then it is called trivial functional dependency.

4. Develop a Database to illustrate 3NF.

 There are two basic requirements for a database to be in 3NF:
1. The database must meet the requirements of both 1NF and 2NF.
2. All database columns must depend on the primary key, meaning that any column's value can be
derived from the primary key only

5. Which normal form is considered adequate for normal relational database design?
Third Normal Form (3NF) is considered adequate for normal relational database design because most
of the 3NF tables are free of insertion, update, and deletion anomalies. Moreover, 3NF always ensures
functional dependency preserving and lossless.

6. List the states of transaction.

A transaction can be defined as a group of tasks that form a single logical unit.

7. Discuss about SELECT and PROJECT operation in relational algebra.

Select: This operation is used to select a subset of rows from a table based on a specific condition.
Project: This operation is used to select a subset of columns from a table.

8. Show the time stamps associated with each data item.

In timestamp-based concurrency control, each data item in the database is associated with two
timestamps: a read timestamp (RTS) and a write timestamp (WTS). The RTS is updated when a
transaction reads a data item, and the WTS is updated when a transaction writes or updates a
data item.
 9. Define deadlock.
Deadlock is a situation in which when two or more transactions have got a lock and waiting for another
locks currently held by one of the other transactions.

10. Describe the need of shadow paging.

Shadow paging is a copy-on-write technique for avoiding in-place updates of pages. Instead,
when a page is to be modified, a shadow page is allocated. Since the shadow page has no
references (from other pages on disk), it can be modified liberally, without concern for
consistency constraints, etc.