Chemistry 11 – First Assignment Reading Package

What is Chemistry?
Chemistry is the study of all substances, how they behave and the changes that they undergo.

Chemicals are everywhere and everything. Anything you can touch or smell or see contains one or more chemicals.
Many occur naturally but some are man-made.

Advancements in the field of chemistry have brought about major improvements in our world. Improvements
range from new medicines that cure diseases, to new materials that make us safer and stronger, to new sources
of energy that enable new activities.

Math in Chemistry
Chemistry often uses mathematics as its language. For this reason, we will need to spend some time
reviewing the mathematical tools you will need throughout this course. Let’s begin…

Observations and Conclusions

It is important to be able to distinguish between observations and conclusions. Observations are made with
the body's senses and are sometimes aided by the use of measuring instruments such as a balance or a
thermometer. A conclusion is an inference or an interpretation of an observation. For example:

"A yellow solid forms when the two solutions are added together" is an observation. "The yellow solid that
is formed in lead (II) chloride" is a conclusion. Your sight can't confirm that lead (II) chloride is formed, but
with the aid of tables and previous knowledge, it can be inferred that the solid is lead (II) chloride.

Qualitative and Quantitative Observations:

Qualitative observations are descriptions or data collected by the body's senses. The following are
examples of qualitative observations:
The vinegar tastes sour.
The flame is bright white.
The metal is easily scratched.

Quantitative observations involve the recording of numerical data and requires the aid of a measuring
device of some kind. The following are examples of quantitative observations:
The starting mass of the salt was 2.56 grams.
The candle burned for 5 minutes.
The temperature ended up at 29.4oC.

Units must always be included along with quantitative data.

Experimental Uncertainty

Quantitative measurement is a part of science. However, all measured quantities have some degree of error or uncertainty.
When taking a measurement, all the digits that are certain are recorded plus a digit that estimates the fraction of the smallest
division on the measurement scale. For example:

By lining up the object with the scale on the ruler, we can see that it is longer than 9 cm but shorter than 10 cm. Therefore,
we can record with certainty that the object measures between 9 and 10 cm. We can also see that the object is greater than
9.5 cm and less than 9.7 cm. It looks pretty close to 9.6 cm, but where uncertainty falls into play is whether or not the object
falls exactly on 9.6 cm, just above or just below. It could be 9.59 cm or 9.61 cm. If it was 9.58 cm or 9.62 cm it probably
would appear to not line up with the 9.6 cm line, therefore your limit of accuracy is about 0.02 cm. It would be hard to
distinguish measurements more precisely than that. Therefore, you should record your answer to two hundreds of a
centimetre, which in this example is 9.60 cm. It could be 9.59 cm long or 9.61 cm, which is why the last number recorded
(the hundredths place in this case) is uncertain.

You should not record the answer as 9.6 cm or 9.600 cm. Mathematically, these three numbers are the same, but
experimentally they are not. 9.6 cm is less precise than 9.60 cm. 9.60 cm shows that we know the length approximately to
the nearest hundredth of a centimetre. We cannot estimate visually the length to the nearest thousandth of a centimetre
and therefore we cannot record our answer as 9.600 cm.

Example

Consider the two graduated cylinders diagrammed below. Since most meniscuses (the curved upper surface of a column of
liquid) are valleys, this usually means reading to the bottom of the meniscus. Some liquids like mercury, however, have
inverted meniscus and are read to the tip of the meniscus. The eye should be at the same level as the meniscus when
reading.

The smallest division on the first graduated cylinder is 10 mL, so the volume must be recorded to the nearest 1 mL. The
volume is estimated at 288 mL. The 2 and the first 8 are certain digits and the last 8 is estimated and is uncertain.

The scale on the second graduated cylinder is much finer. 0.01 mL is the smallest division. The volume is recorded to the
nearest 0.001 mL as 0.190 mL. The final zero must be included to indicate which decimal place has been estimated and is
uncertain.
Precision & Accuracy
Precision and accuracy have very distinct meanings to a scientist.
Precision, as it applies to a set of measurements, measures the agreement between results of repeated
measurements (see diagram below) i.e it is reproducible.
Precision, as it applies to a single measurement, is the number of decimal places displayed. A balance that can
read mass to 0.0001 grams should be more precise than one that reads mass to 0.1 grams.
Accuracy measures the agreement between a measurement and the accepted standard value. If a balance
consistently gives a value of 3.64 g on repeated measurements, its precision is good. However, if the actual
mass is 3.85 g, its accuracy is poor! A finely calibrated instrument will usually be precise and accurate,
assuming no error is introduced by the user.

Precision = the agreement between results of repeated measurements.

Accuracy = the agreement between a measurement and the accepted standard value.

Significant Figures
Note: significant figures = significant digits = sig figs (all the same)
Video: Please watch the following video explaining Significant Figures – Click here to load the video
Before looking at a few examples, let's summarize the rules for significant figures (see Appendix A for a
complete list).
1. Non-zero numbers (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) are significant. (3.14 -> 3 sig figs)
2. Zeroes between non-zero numbers are significant. (300.104 -> 6 sig figs)
3. Following zeros to the right of non-zero numbers without a decimal are not significant. With a decimal,
they become significant. (200 -> 1 sig fig, 200. -> 3 sig figs)
4. Following zeroes which are to the right of the decimal point and following non-zero numbers are
significant, even at the end. (7.0300 -> 5 sig figs)
5. A zero used to show a decimal point (i.e.. a zero by itself on the left side of a decimal) is not
significant. All zeros between a decimal and the first non-zero numbers are not significant.
Video: Please watch the following video on Sig Fig rules – Click here to load the video
Scientific Notation

If it has been a little while since you've worked with scientific notation, it'll be worth working through the
following video.

Video: Please watch the following video on ‘Scientific Notation’ – Please click here to load the video

Big and Small Numbers

As chemists, we deal with some extremely big and extremely small numbers. For example, we will be dealing
with the mass of an electron (0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 910 938 kg) or Avogadro's number
(602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000).

As you can see, as scientists, we could get really tired of writing zeros.

Fortunately, science has a way of dealing with very large and very small numbers; to help reduce clutter and
make them easier to digest. We call it scientific notation.

Avogadro's number= 6.02 × 1023

mass of electron = 9.10938 × 10-31 kg

Much better!

If the number you are working with is greater than ten, you will have a positive exponent in scientific
notation; if it is less than one, you’ll have a negative exponent. As you can see, handling super large or super
small numbers with scientific notation is easier than writing them all out, which is why calculators come with
this kind of functionality already built in.
Standards
In scientific notation all numbers are written in this form:

𝒂 × 𝟏𝟎𝒃
We would say "a times ten to the power of b."
• a is any real number between 1 and 10
• b is adjusted to represent the magnitude of the number
• if b is positive, we are talking about a number greater than 10
• if b is negative, we are talking about a number less than 1
Generally, a chemist would use scientific notation for numbers that are either:
greater than 10 000
or
less than 0.001
Using a Calculator
Another skill that will make your life much easier is learning how to use scientific notation on your calculator.
Often these buttons look like EXP, EE or ee. To enter a number in your calculator which is in scientific notation
see the example below.

Calculator Tip

Suppose you have to enter the number 3.45 x 1022 into your calculator.
How is this done?

• Enter 3.45 into the calculator

• Find your EXP or EE button
• Enter 22
Although calculators are all different, this is a common procedure and will
likely work for your calculator.

Once you have mastered entering numbers into your calculator using scientific notation calculations are a
snap. Try the example below.

Try it out!

Determine the product:

(5.98 x 1024 kg ) x (7.35 x 1022 kg)
4.3953 x 1047

Now try to divide the same numbers:

(5.98 x 1024 kg ) / (7.35 x 1022 kg)
81.4
Did you get them correct? If not, check what might be wrong and/or ask your
teacher.
Examples of the above rules:

Eg. # Sig Figs Rule(s) Sci Not

1234 4 1 1.234 x 103

3.4 2 1 same

800.6 4 1,2 8.006 x 102

0.05 1 1,5 5 x 10-2

45.100 5 1,4 4.5100 x 101

2.010 4 1,2,4 same

300 1 1,3 3 x 102

300. 3 1,3 3.00 x 102

3.0 x 102 2 1,4 same

Sig Fig Adding & Subtracting

Video: Please watch the following video on adding & subtracting with sig figs – Click here to load the video
Sig Fig Multiplying & Dividing
Video: Please watch the following video on multiplying & dividing with sig figs – Click here to load the video
 Equations

You will have to memorize only a few equations in this course. And, you will have to be able to rearrange these
equations, to solve for the quantity you are after. If you need a bit of a refresher, watch this video on
Rearranging Equations: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gmp8Vf08eJw

For example, say you had the following formula for calculating density. D = m/v

Now suppose the problem actually tells you the mass and the density, and asks you to calculate the object’s
volume.

You must rearrange the equation so that volume (v) is isolated on one side of the equation.

Step 1: Multiply both sides by V to get Vd = m

Step 2: Divide both sides by D to get v = m/D

Units of Measure
Metric Prefixes

Video: Please watch the following video on Metric Conversions – Click here to load the video
Scientists around the world use the metric system whenever possible. This is good, as it makes life a lot
easier. Metric is all based on conversion related to base 10. I highlighted the most important ones below:
Conversion Factors
Here are the main conversion factors you will be needing to become familiar with for this course:

• 1000 m = 1 km • 1 ml = 1 cm3

• 100 cm = 1 m • 60 seconds = 1 minute

• 1000 g = 1 kg • 60 minutes = 1 hour

• 1000 mg = 1 g • 3600 seconds = 1 hour

• 1000 ml = 1 L

It will be good to memorize these, and you will run into others along the way, but you will be supplied
with information for others.

Video: Please watch the following TEDEd video ‘Why the metric System Matters’

Dimensional Analysis
"Dimensional analysis" sounds scary, but it is not. It is a method for keeping track units in complicated
problems. It will help you in MANY situations if you know how to use it. Consider it carefully!

Dimensional analysis uses units, and the canceling of units in equations. To use units in this manner, first
determine what units the answer should have. Then, organize the data to yield those units. Units may
be treated as algebraic variables in these calculations and may be multiplied and divided in the same
way as numbers. Let's take a look at a simple example: How many cms are there in 5.00 m?

Video: Please watch the following video on Dimensional Analysis

Graphing Review

A large portion of the study of chemistry is to determine how various chemical and physical
properties are related to one another. Usually this involves designing an experiment,
manipulating variables, collecting data and graphing the results. The shape of the resulting
graph will indicate if variables are related, and if so what is the nature of the relationship
behind them.

Review some important terms from your days of graphing in math class.
 Appendix A: Rules of Significant Figures
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS OR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES – are used to give an idea of the degree of uncertainty in your measurement – ie. Sig figs are
those known accurately (certain) plus one.

1. All non zero digits are significant.

examples: 234 = 3 6791 = 4 62 = 2

2. All zeros between non zero digits are significant.

examples: 2001 = 4 605 = 3 12301 = 5

3. Zeros don’t count if they show a decimal place or how big or how small the number is. examples: 0.0072 = 2

0.0145 = 3 1200 = 2

4. Zeros count if they show a measurement was made.

examples: 1.50 = 3 86.00 = 4 40.0 = 3

HINT: if you leave the zero out when putting it in the calculator it counts or is significant.

examples: 4.7600 = 5 12000 = 2 0.072 = 2 6000 = 1 40 = 1

56.0 = 3 12.00 = 4 430 = 2 0.0720 = 3 0.00940 = 3

5. If a zero is at the end and is significant, and there are zeroes before it, these count. example: 40.0 = 3

6. When a number is expressed in scientific notation, all the numbers count for sig figs. examples: 2.3 x 102 = 2

1.20 x 10-6 = 3 8.00 x 107 = 3

7. Rules for adding or subtracting numbers and sig figs.

The answer should have no more decimal places than the least accurate one in the problem. examples: 4.9 + .372

+ 2.55 + 7.8 (1 decimal place)

64.55 – 22 = 43 (nearest whole number)

142.32 – 4.156 + 9.12 – 2.5 = 144.8 (1 decimal place)

8. Rules for multiplying or dividing and sig figs:

The answer should have the least number of significant digits as in the problem.

examples: 0.0725 x 41 x 27.9 = 83 (2 sig figs)

61.93 x 9.97 x 41 = 1600 (2 sig figs)

0.673 x 24
(2 sig figs)
2.34 x 10-4 x 2.1 x 102 = 0.049 or 4.9 x 10-2

Make the sig figs in your answer to match the lowest number of sig figs in the question.