GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS:

● Lines of latitude run from east

to west
● Lines of longitude run from
north to south
● The equator is the centre line
of latitude
● The Prime meridian is the
centre line of longitude
● The upper half of the earth is
called the Tropic of Cancer
● The lower half of the earth is
called the Tropic of Capricorn
● Latitude are horizontal line that
measures the distance between the
north and south poles
● The longitude line measures the
distance between the east and west
of the meridian
● Latitude and longitude lines are
measured in degrees, minutes and
seconds.
● The maximum distance latitude lines
can go is 90 degrees
● The maximum distance longitude
lines can go is 180 degrees

TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS, CONTOUR LINES, GRADIENT:

● Topographic maps are detailed and

accurate representations of features on the
Earth’s surface.
● This includes mountains, greens, rivers,
lakes, roads, urban development, valleys,
wooded or clear land, and contour or cliff
edges
● Contour lines show how steep or flat the
land is, contour lines also show how high
the elevation is in that particular area
● The closer the lines are, the steeper the
land.
● The further apart the lines are, the flatter the land
● The height of contour lines are labelled in meters
(m)
● The topographic contour cross section is drawn
in the form like this:
GRADIENT:

● The gradient is calculated using the formula (rise/run)

ASPECT:
● To identify the aspect of the contour line,
first identity which way is downhill
● The direction in which the mountain is
going down is the direction where the
aspect would be pointing
● Summer sun or higher into the sky
whereas winter sun is lower in the sky

Factors that contribute to well-being:

● Relationship
● Career
● Community
● Physical
● Mental
● Financial

Indicators:
● Gross Domestic Product (GDP): GDP is a measurement of the value of all goods
and services bought and sold within a country’s borders.
● Quality of life: wealth, employment, the environment, physical and mental
health, education, recreation and leisure time, social belonging, religious
beliefs, safety, security and freedom.
● Economic: measure the performance of the economy, like GDP, consumption,
investment and stability of the economy.
● Social: include demographic, social and health measure
● Environmental: access to resources that provide the means for social and
economic development.
● Political: looks at how effective the government are in helping people's
standards of living by ensuring access to essential services
● Technological: such as field transport, industry, agriculture, mining and
communication also contribute to wellbeing

THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX:

● The Human Development Index measures the key aspects of human
development
● These include:
● Life expectancy
● Excepted years of schooling
● Standard of living (measured by Gross National Income)
● The HDI does not reflect on the equalities, poverty, human security,
empowerment, etc.
MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS:

● The United Nations Millennium Development Goals were 8 goals that all 189 UN
Member States have agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015.
● These goals were:
● Eradicating extreme hunger and poverty
● Achieving universal primary education
● Promote gender equality and empower women
● Reduce child mortality
● Improve maternal health
● Combat HVI/Aids malaria and other diseases
● Ensuring environmental sustainability
● Develop a global partnership for development

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDG):

● The Sustainable Development Goals are a universal call to

action to end poverty, protect the planet and improve the lives
and prospects of everyone, everywhere.
● There are 17 goals which include:
● Zero poverty
● Zero hunger
● Good health and well-being
● Quality education
● Gender equality
● Clean water and sanitation
● Affordable and clean energy
● Decent work and economic growth
● Industry, innovation, and infrastructure
● Reduce inequalities
● Sustainable cities and communities
● Responsible consumption and production
● Climate change
● Life below water
● Life on land
● Peace, justice and a strong institution
● Partnership for the goals

PHOTOGRAPHS IN GEOGRAPHY:
● Oblique photograph:

● Satellite Imagery:

● Ground Level photograph:

● Vertical photograph:
POPULATION PYRAMID:

● A population pyramid is a way to visualise two variables, sex and age.

● A population pyramid is a graph that shows the distribution of age across a
population divided down the centre between males and females
● The youngest are at the bottom of the pyramid
● The oldest are at the top of the pyramid
● Population pyramids are useful for studying the future of a region as well as
examining historical and current population trends

ABORIGINALS’ WELL-BEING:

● Social and cultural determinants of health refer to the fact that the way we live, work
and play affects our health.
● Discrimination is what is affecting the Indigenous people's well-being
● The grief and loss of “The Stolen Generation”
● Lack of rights to their land
● Lack of justice
● Violations of their cultural rights

TYPE OF SPHERE:
● Lithosphere: Earth
● Hydrosphere: Water
● Atmosphere: Gas
● Biosphere: Living things

LITHOSPHERIC PROCESSES:
● Erosion: Eroding something away by wind, water or ice, slowly eroding the rock or
fragments of it away.
● Weathering: Weathering is the physical or chemical disintegration of rocks and
minerals.
● Tectonic Processes: When tectonic plates collide with one another, they form
mountain ranges. Earthquakes and volcanoes are common near the boundary line.
 Fold mountains form when tectonic plates crunch up
into each other, which pushes up into loops and
bumps. Fault mountains form with a part of the
tectonic plate is forced up and the other forced
down.

BIOSPHERIC PROCESS:

● The carbon cycle is the process where carbon transfers throughout the environment

●
● Animals eat plants and obtain carbon and then use carbon from plants for energy
and growth.
● Carbon dioxide exists in the air and is used by plants to photosynthesise and
make food.

OXYGEN CYCLE:
 ●
● The oxygen cycle begins with the oxygen that exists in the air.
● Animals obtain oxygen by breathing and plants produce oxygen and release it
through their pores.

FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB:

● The food chain describes who eats who

● There are two types of food chains:
● Food chain: A singular chain of who eats who, energy is transferred from one
organism to another
● Food web: Multiple food chains combined together, energy is transferred in
multiple directions.
● Producers: The one who produces the food
● Consumers: The organism that eats other organisms
● Decomposers: Breakdown dead organisms

Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycle:

WATER CYCLE:

● The water cycle demonstrates how water moves around in the

environment.

HEAT & COOLING:

● Solar radiation is the heat that is received from the sun’s rays.
● The atmosphere plays an important role in distributing this heat around
the planet.
● In some locations, there is more heat received from the sun than is
reflected by the Earth.
● In contrast, in polar regions and at high altitudes, less heat is received
from the sun than is reflected by the Earth.

● The atmosphere absorbs some incoming radiation which helps to

balance temperatures overnight when no direct radiation is received.
● Some radiation is reflected which helps regulate temperatures in
extreme heat areas.
Aboriginal &Torres Strait Islander Environment Management:

● Indigenous land and sea management is also known as “ caring for the
country”
● Aboriginal land practises involve working with the land rather than seeking to
make dramatic changes
● Indigenous people only took what they needed so there was little waste
● Habitat loss, soil erosion and weed infestation weren’t a thing to the
Aboriginals
● The Aboriginals practise back burning to reduce the fuel for forest fires from
happening for a long period of time, damaging the land. This prevents large
bushfires.
● In some Indigenous communities, some native species are seen as sacred
● Their technology was simple, they used spears and fire sticks to reduce
environmental damage.
● Their spiritual and cultural connection to the land, the land’s and water’s
health is central to the Aboriginals’ well-being.
● The Aboriginals believed that the land and seasons governed all aspects of
life, they didn’t need to plant plants and raise livestock, and the land
prevented all that they needed.
● The movement of the Aboriginals depended on the season
● Fire is used to control plants’ growth and maintain grassland, some native
seed requires fire in order to germinate

WORLDVIEW:
 ● Egocentric: thinks only of themselves and their own wants, and does not
consider other people
● Anthropocentric: considering human beings as the most significant entity
of the universe
● Stewardship: the conducting, supervising, or managing of something
● Biocentric: the ethical perspective that all living things deserve equal
moral consideration
● Ecocentric: having a serious concern for environmental issues

WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE:

● Climate change is a long-term change to the Earth’s

weather patterns that create the Earth’s regions and
biomes.
● Climate change has several effects on the Earth: Hotter
temperatures (as the greenhouse gas concentration
rises, it traps more heat on the Earth’s surface), more
severe storms, increased droughts, and loss of species.
● Climate change is affecting the Earth by the increase in
temperature, which is melting glaciers.

Sustainability:

● Sustainability is the small changes we can make to help look out for the
planet.
● The 3 pillars of sustainability is environment, social, and economic
●