Lecture# 10

Abnormal
Pore Pressure
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Pore Pressure

o Normal pore pressure

o Abnormal pore pressure

o Subnormal pore pressure

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1. Normal
Pore Pressure

o Pressure acting on fluids in pore spaces of rock

o Equal to hydrostatic pressure of column of formation fluid

o If formation is opened up and allowed to fill a column

whose length is equal to depth of formation

o Pressure at bottom of column is equal to formation

pressure and pressure at surface is equal to zero
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Normal
Pore Pressure

Not constant and Vary with:

o Concentration of dissolved salt

o Type of fluid

o Gases present

o Temperature gradient
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Normal
Pore Pressure

Fluid Pressure Gradient

Fresh Water 0.433 psi/ft

Brine: 80,000 ppm 0.465 psi/ft

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Pressure
Profile
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Normal
Pore Pressure Gradient
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Abnormal
Pore Pressure

o Pore pressure greater than hydrostatic pressure

of formation water occupying pore spaces

o Known Overpressure or Geopressure

o Made up of normal hydrostatic component plus

an extra amount of pressure
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Abnormal
Pore Pressure

o Occur at any depth from a few hundred feet to depths

exceeding 25,000 ft

o An interruption to or disturbance of normal compaction

and de-watering process
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Subnormal
Pore Pressure

o Any formation pressure less than fluid hydrostatic pressure

at a given depth

o Encounter less frequently than abnormal pore pressures

o Natural causes related to stratigraphic, tectonic and

geochemical history

o Cause artificially by production of reservoir fluids

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Abnormal Pore Pressure

Causes

o Depositional Effects

o Structural Causes

o Thermodynamic Effects
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Depositional
Effects

I. Under compaction of Shale

II. Deposition of evaporates

III. Digenetic process

IV. Tectonic effects

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I. Under
Compaction of Shale

o Normal Compaction

o Under Compaction
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Normal
Compaction

o Volume of a sediment is reduced as grains are squeezed

together due to weight of overlying sediments

o Weight of overlying sediments causes discharge of

intergranular fluid

o Porosity of sediment is reduced

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Normal
Compaction

Degree of compaction is controlled by:

o Original porosity

o Amount of pore fluid

o Shape and degree of sorting of rock grains

Leave Pore Fluid in Sediment at Normal Pressure

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Under
Compaction

o Result of a disruption of balance between rate of

sedimentation of clays and discharge rate of pore fluids

o Nile Delta in Egypt formed by sediments carried by Nile

river into Mediterranean sea

o Sediments are mostly clays with adsorbed water

sandwiched between solid clay particles
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Why
Under Compaction Happen?

o Increase in rate of sedimentation

o Reduction in rate of fluid ejection caused by :

❖Decrease in permeability due to solids blocking

passages

❖Deposition of a permeability barrier such as limestone

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Under
Compaction
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Consequences
Under Compaction

o Same volume of pore fluid remains in rock

o Porosity of rock is maintained at new depth and fluids

can not escape

o Fluid begins to support weight of overburden

o Pressure increases and further compaction is inhibited

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Overpressure at
Clay/Sand Boundaries
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II. Deposition of Evaporates

o Halite is totally impermeable to fluids

o Behave like a sponge absorbing overburden stress

o When salt is deposited, pore fluids in underlying

formations cannot escape

o Trapped and abnormally pressured

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Halite

o known as rock salt

o Mineral (natural) form of sodium chloride (NaCl)

o Occur with other evaporite deposit minerals such as

several of the sulfates, halides, and borates
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Salt
Diaparism

o Piercement of a formation by a plastic, mobile, less dense

underlying formation, typically salt

o Salt exhibit plastic behavior at elevated temperatures

and pressures

o Due to low density move upwards to form salt domes

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Overpressure
Caused by Salt Diapairism

o Overpressure due to
sealing by salt (zone A)

o Upward movement
(zones B & C)
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Overpressure
Caused by Salt Diapairism

o Create additional tectonic stresses within overlying

sediments

o Providing a lateral seal limiting pore water discharge

o Encapsulate rafters of overlying formations as it flow

upwards

o Trapping pressures within rafters

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Rafting Example

o Seen in Gotnia formation in Kuwait

o Where abnormal pore pressures of 19.5 ppg are

observed in limestone
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III. Tectonic Effect

Development of Abnormal Pore Pressure as a Result of a

Variety of Mechanisms Including:

o Folding

o Faulting

o uplift

o Salt diaparism
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Folding

o Generated by tectonic compression of a geological

basin

o To remain normally pressurized, increased compaction

must be balanced by pore water discharge

o If formation fluid cannot escape, abnormal pressure

will result
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Overpressure
due to Folding
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Folding

o Pressure generated exceed overburden gradient due to

additional tectonic stress which may be balanced by
pore pressure

o Observed 19 ppg pressure gradient in Southern Iran

(AgharJari Fields)
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Faulting

o Sedimentary beds are broken up, moved up and down

or twisted

o Fault plane act as a seal against a permeable

formation

o Preventing pore fluid discharge with compaction

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Faulting

o Transmit fluids from a deeper permeable formation to a

shallow zone

o A zone move down fault plane causing zone to be

subjected to a higher overburden pressure and higher
geothermal temperature
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Uplift

o If a normally pressured formation is uplifted to a

shallower depth

o Formation appear to have an abnormal pressure

o Formation pressure has more hydrostatic pressure

than a corresponding normally pressured zone at
same depth
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Uplift

o Abnormal pressure is further increased if uplifting was

followed by a corresponding erosion of overburden

o Increase in pressure due to uplifting is offset to some

extend

o Decrease in pressure due to cooling effects caused

by moving from greater depth to a shallower depth
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IV. Diagenetic Process

o With increasing pressure and temperature

o Sediments undergo chemical and physical changes

Include:

o Formation of new minerals

o Recrystallization

o Lithification
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Types
Diagenetic Process

o Clay Diagenesis (Conversion of Smectite to Illite)

o Diagenesis of Sulphate Formations

o Diagenesis of Volcanic Ash

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Clay
Diagenesis
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Clay
Diagenesis
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Diagenesis of
Sulphate Formations

o Anhydrite (CaSO4) is diagenetically formed from

dehydration of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)

o Large volumes of water are released

o Accompanied by a 30-40% reduction in formation

volume
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Diagenesis of
Sulphate Formations

Released water remains held at halite/

anhydrite boundary and supports very large
portions of overburden gradient
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Diagenesis of Volcanic Ash

Results in three main products:

o Clay minerals

o Methane

o Carbon dioxide
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Volcanic
Ash
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Volcanic
Ash
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Volcanic Ash
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Diagenesis of Volcanic Ash

o Formations that contain volcanic ash may become

overpressured due to these gases

o Overpressure encountered in South China Sea and

NW Coastal USA
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Abnormal Pore Pressure

Causes

o Depositional Effects

o Structural Causes

o Thermodynamic Effects
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Structural Causes

I. Reservoir Structure

II. Piezometric Fluid Level

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I. Reservoir Structure

o Horizontal reservoir

o Non-Horizontal reservoir

❖ Lenticular reservoirs

❖ Dipping reservoirs

❖ Anticlinal reservoirs
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Lenticular Reservoir
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Dipping Reservoirs

Water
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EX# 01:
Dipping Reservoir

o Water-filled portion has normal pore pressure of 0.465

Psi/ft

o Gas-water contact at 5,000 ft

o Gas average density : 0.8 ppg

What Mud Weight Required to Drill at 4,000 ft?

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EX# 01:
Dipping Reservoir

0.465 psi/ft
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Solution:
Dipping reservoir

Pore Pressure at Gas-water Contact:

P = 0.465 x 5,000 = 2,325 psi

Pressure at Static Gas Zone at 4,000 ft:

P = 2,325 – 0.052 x 0.8 x (5,000 – 4,000)= 2,283 psi (0.571 psi/ft)

Required MW:
2,283 = 0.052 x MW x 4,000 = 11 ppg
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Structural Causes

I. Reservoir Structure

II. Piezometric Fluid Level

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II. Piezometric
Fluid Level
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Piezometric Fluid Level

An Imaginary Surface which Define level to which

Ground Water Rise in Well

o Abnormal pore pressure: if water table in aquifer is

higher than well site elevation

o Subnormal pore pressures: If elevation of well site is

greater than water table elevation
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Abnormal Pore Pressure

Causes

1. Depositional Effects

2. Structural Causes

3. Thermodynamic Effects
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Thermodynamic
Effects

I. Thermal cracking

II. Aquathermal effects

III. Osmosis

IV. Permafrost
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Thermal Cracking

o At high temperature and pressure kerogen break

down into simpler compounds

o Kerogen alter to hydrocarbon at 90 ºC

o Result in 2 to 3 fold increase in volume of hydrocarbon

o If occur in a sealed environment, high pore pressures

could result

o Central North Sea, 17 ppg, near fracture gradient

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Aquathermal
Effect

o Temperature normally increase linearly with depth

o As formations are buried deep into earth,

temperature will increase

o If formations are totally sealed preventing escape of

fluid

o Then abnormal pressure will develop

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Aquathermal
Effect

o Abnormally pressured formations typically have a

higher porosity with higher pore fluid content

o Due to high fluid content and clay acting as an

insulator of earth’s heat

o Result in increased pore pressure

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Osmosis

Spontaneous flow of fluid from a more dilute solution to

a more concentrated solution across a semi-
permeable membrane
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Osmosis

o Clay act as a semi-permeable membrane

o If salinity variations exist between claystone beds,

osmotic flow occur from formation with less
concentrated pore fluid to more one

o If flow is toward an isolated formation then a pressure

build up can occur
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Permafrost

A thick subsurface layer of soil that remain frozen

throughout year, occurring chiefly in polar regions
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Permafrost
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Permafrost
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Permafrost

o Drilling and production operations may result in

extensive thawing (melt) of permafrost around
wellbore

o If thawed permafrost re-freezes later in winter, then

‘freeze-back’ pressures will result
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