REVIEW

Clinical approach to renal

neoplasia in budgerigars
(Melopsittacus undulatus)
Renal neoplasia in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) is seen
regularly in general practice and is of interest to many practicing
veterinary surgeons. This review article provides an overview of the
current knowledge and the most recent reports in avian literature
regarding renal tumours in budgerigars, with the emphasis on
clinical diagnosis and treatment. The high prevalence of renal
neoplasia in budgerigar is discussed, with notes on the most
commonly diagnosed tumours, possibility of metastases, sex and
age predisposition. The possibility of ultrasonography and
radiography in the diagnosis of this pathological condition are
compared as well as the possible role of blood and urine analyses.
Two studies are described, both of which investigate the possible
involvement of a retrovirus as the aetiological agent.
S. SIMOVA-CURD, D. NITZL*, INTRODUCTION
J. MAYERy AND J.-M. HATT
Budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) are
Journal of Small Animal Practice (2006)
47, 504–511 popular pet birds, which belong to the
order of parrots (Psittaciformes). The ani-
mals are kept alone, in pairs or in groups
and generally have a close contact with the
owner. A number of varieties exist, which
differ in size and feather coloration. In
general, captive birds appear to have a sig-
nificantly higher incidence of neoplasia
than wild birds, most likely due to the
increased life span in captivity and the
increased exposure to carcinogens, such as
aromatic amines, polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons and aflatoxins (Campbell 1986).
Numerous studies and postmortem
examinations have identified the budgeri-
gar as having the highest incidence of neo-
plasia of the psittacine birds (Ratcliffe
1933, Blackmore 1966, Petrak and
Gillmore 1982, Loupal and Reifinger
1986, Filip and Scope 2002). There are
Division of Zoo Animals, Exotic Pets and Wildlife,
two major retrospective studies that inves-
and *Section of Diagnostic Imaging and Radio- tigate the proportion of kidney tumours
Oncology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, compared with all neoplasia found in this
Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich,
Switzerland
species. In the study by Neumann and
Kummerfeld (1983), of 1203 budgerigars,
yExotics Service, School of Veterinary Medicine,
Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North 32
1 per cent were clinically diagnosed
Grafton, MA 01536, USA with neoplasia. From all 217 budgerigars
that were sent for post-mortem examina-
tion, the highest percentage (20
5 per
cent) had renal tumours.
The more recent retrospective study by
Filip and Scope (2002) covers a period of
seven years, focusing on localisation, his-
togenesis and malignancy of neoplasms.
The authors investigated 751 budgerigars,
of which 460 were male and 291 females.
The most common localisation of neo-
plasm was in the coelomic cavity (48
8
per cent). Renal tumours were the second
most common neoplasia (16
9 per cent)
after skin tumours (41
9 per cent), espe-
cially lipomas.
The findings of these authors and the
current authors’ own experience lead to
the conclusion that renal tumours consti-
tute one of the most commonly seen neo-
plasia in budgerigars.
The increasing knowledge and improv-
ing quality of avian medicines demands
that a diagnosis be made and prognosis
and therapeutic options for neoplasia in
birds need to be discussed with the owner.
This review covers basic information
about renal neoplasia in budgerigars and
refers to the most recent reports in avian
literature.
CLINICAL INVESTIGATION
IN BUDGERIGARS WITH
RENAL NEOPLASM
Symptoms
The predominant clinical sign that gives
rise to a suspicion of renal neoplasia is uni-
lateral or bilateral leg lameness or paraly-
sis, with no history of trauma (Neumann
and Kummerfeld 1983). It is recommen-
ded that the reflexes and sensation in both
legs is compared. A mosquito forceps or
other small surgery forceps may be used
for this procedure. Light pressure is
applied by gently squeezing the skin on
the leg, starting the examination from
the distal part of the leg and proceeding
proximally.
If kidney neoplasia is suspected, the leg
distal to the stifle joint typically shows

504 Journal of Small Animal Practice
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either a complete lack of sensation or
reduced sensation compared with the
other leg. Sensation is normally present
proximal to the stifle joint, and quite
often, the bird can still move its leg from
front to back but will not stand on it.
Normally, the affected leg is held feebly
on the perch, in what is called the ‘hand
for a kiss’ position (Fig 1). This clinical
sign results from tumour compression of
the ischiadic nerve as it passes through
the kidney or from tumour growth adja-
cent to the synsacrum and ilium. Ruffled
feathers in the back region and kyphosis
may be seen as well (Kummerfeld and
others 1983). Therefore, whenever ortho-
paedic disease or metabolic disorders can
be excluded diagnostically, abdominal
neoplasia should be considered as a cause
for lameness in budgerigars (Neumann
and Kummerfeld 1983).
Some cases may also have other clinical
symptoms, such as abdominal enlarge-
ment, dyspnoea, emaciation, apathy and
diarrhoea due to the intracoelomic pressure
or organ displacement (Bauck 1992); these
signs, however, are less specific.
Blood chemistry and
urine analysis
Only blood uric acid concentrations have
been investigated in relation to renal
tumours (Gould and others 1993). The
increase in serum uric acid levels indicates
either renal dysfunction or dehydration.
Three of the 16 investigated birds showed
a significant increase in serum uric acid
level. All three animals presenting with
unilateral paresis had tumours involv-
ing both the kidneys. According to these
FIG 1. Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)
with renal neoplasia and typical unilateral
paresis: the ‘hand for a kiss’ symptom. Note the
position of the right leg on the perch
Journal of Small Animal Practice
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Renal neoplasia in budgerigars
findings, it is concluded that the in-
crease in uric acid level may act as a
clinical marker, indicating bilateral renal
involvement.
Urine analysis using Combur Test
(Roche Diagnostics GmbH) to detect hae-
maturia may also be performed to evaluate
the significance of haematuria with regard
to renal neoplasia. According to Speer
(1997), haematuria would indicate the
presence of renal diseases such as renal
neoplasia, bacterial and viral nephritis or
some forms of toxic nephropathies. How-
ever, no study has been performed to eval-
uate this connection.
Radiography
Radiography is an important tool in the
diagnosis of renal neoplasia. Two views
(right or left lateral and ventrodorsal)
are recommended, although renal neopla-
sia can be detected more frequently on
lateral views than on ventrodorsal views
(Gould and others 1993, Lierz 2003).
Correct patient positioning is essential
for a reliable radiographic interpretation.
While the sternal ridge ideally is aligned
with the vertebral column on ventrodorsal
images, the coxofemoral joints are super-
imposed on each other on lateral images
(Kummerfeld and others 1983).
On plain radiographs, the position of
the grit-filled ventriculus relative to the
kidneys can be used as a landmark for
changes in renal size (Fig 2). In the ventro-
dorsal projection, the ventriculus is
located on the left side of the coelom, with
its most cranial border at the level of the
coxofemoral joints. The cranial portion of
the kidneys is best visible on lateral radio-
graphs, while the middle and the caudal
aspects are superimposed by the bony
pelvis (McMillan 1988, Gould and
others 1993). Normal-sized kidneys do not
extend ventrally to an imaginary horizon-
tal line parallel to the spine that passes
FIG 2. (A) Plain lateral radiograph of
through the ventral border of the acetab- a budgerigar with renal neoplasia. Note the
ulum (Bauck 1992) (Fig 3). In some position of the grit-filled ventriculus (V) and the
birds, the cranial part of the kidneys is soft tissue mass (M) ventral of the synsacrum
in the region of the caudal division of the
superimposed by the gonads, which kidneys. (B) Plain lateral radiograph of a normal
should not be confused with renal masses. budgerigar for comparison
On plain ventrodorsal radiographs, normal
kidneys are not readily visible (McMillan intestinal contrast studies can be helpful
1988). in determining the origin of coelomic
Because of the low sensitivity and masses. Approximately 60 minutes after
specificity of plain radiographs, gastro- oral application of a 24-45 per cent
505

FIG 3. Schematic drawing of a lateral radiograph of a budgerigar. Normal-sized kidneys do
not extend ventral to an imaginary horizontal line parallel to the spine (A) that passes through the
ventral border of the acetabulum (B)
suspension of 20 ml/kg barium sulphate,
both standard radiographic projections are
obtained. In healthy birds, the angle
between proventriculus and vertebral col-
umn measures approximately 45° on ven-
trodorsal radiographs (Fig 4b). Massive
enlargement of the cranial portion of
the left kidney results in an increase in this
angle, which corresponds to a lateral dis-
placement of the proventriculus (Fig 4a).
Renal enlargement also leads to a ven-
tral displacement of proventriculus, ven-
triculus and intestines on lateral views
(Fig 5a) compared with the normal study
(Fig 5b) (Kummerfeld and others 1983).
Gonadal, splenic or even hepatic masses
are considered as differential diagnoses.
Neoplasia involving the cranial part of
the kidney may be difficult to differentiate
from gonadal tumours or adrenal masses
(Gould and others 1993).
Ultrasonography
A limited number of publications exist on
ultrasonography of the avian urogenital tract
(Enders and others 1994, Hofbauer and
Krautwald-Junghanns 1999, Krautwald-
506
S. Simova-Curd and others
Junghanns and others 2002). Ultrasonogra-
phy as a non-invasive imaging modality is
beneficial to further differentiation of coelo-
mic masses like renal neoplasia, liver masses
or egg binding.
Due to the small size of budgerigars, the
approach to the coelomic cavity is limited
to a window between the caudal margin
of the sternum and the pubic bone of the
pelvis (ventromedian approach). The nor-
mal avian kidneys are not usually visible
ultrasonographically because of their posi-
tion ventral to the vertebral column in
FIG 4. (A) Ventrodorsal view of a contrast
indentations of the synsacrum. Even in study of a budgerigar with renal neoplasia
larger birds, where a lateral approach is pos- about 45 minutes after oral barium application.
sible via the flank directly caudal to the last The lateral displacement of the proventriculus
(PV) and the caudal displacement of the are
rib, the abdominal air sacs and intestinal caused by a soft tissue mass of the cranial part
loops impair the visibility of the kidneys of the ventriculus (V) left kidney. The
(Krautwald-Junghanns and Enders 1994). radiographic sign fits to the clinical apparent
paresis of the left leg. (B) Ventrodorsal view of
Fasting of the bird for at least three hours a contrast study of a normal budgerigar about
is generally recommended before the ultra- 45 minutes after oral barium application
sonographic examination since a filled gas-
trointestinal tract may interfere between the
transducer and other organs (Enders and the birds is not necessary and not always
others 1994, Krautwald-Junghanns and recommended because of the birds’
Enders 1994). In the authors’ experience poor general condition at the time of the
at the University of Zurich, fasting of examination.
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 Renal neoplasia in budgerigars

Although general anaesthesia is not rec-

ommended to perform ultrasonography in
birds (Krautwald-Junghanns and Enders
1994, Gumpenberger and Scope 2001),
the use of inhalation anaesthesia with iso-
flurane is prefered by the authors as it
minimises stress to the budgerigar and
has the advantage of rapid induction
and recovery. During anaesthesia, warmed
heat pads, or alternatively surgical gloves
filled with warm water, are placed under-
neath the bird to decrease heat loss.
Before the ultrasonographic examina-
tion, the area of the ventromedian
approach, as described previously, needs
to be cleared of feathers to achieve a good
transducer/skin contact. The skin is moist-
ened by a sufficient amount of acoustic
coupling gel to achieve good image quality.
The budgerigars are fixed in dorsal recum-
bency and/or an upright position by an
assistant, with the legs extended caudolater-
ally. Either an additional person can hold
the bird or artificial devices can be used for
fixation (Krautwald-Junghanns and Enders
1994, Gumpenberger and Scope 2001). FIG 6. Longitudinal (A) and transverse (B)
The main limitation is the patient size ultrasonographic image (ventromedian
relative to the size of the transducer. High- approach) of the coelom of a budgerigar with
a renal adenocarcinoma. Note the mainly
frequency transducers with a small contact hypoechogenic, slightly heterogeneous renal
surface are necessary (McMillan 1988, mass (asterisks) ventral to the synsacrum
Hofbauer and Krautwald-Junghanns 1999). (arrows)

In the authors’ experience, with a 5 to

FIG 5. (A) Lateral view of a contrast study of
the same budgerigar with renal neoplasia
approximately 60 minutes after oral
administration of barium. The caudoventral
displacement of the ventriculus (V) is caused
by a non-intestinal soft tissue mass (M) already
described on the plain film (Fig 2). (B) Lateral
view of a contrast study of a normal budgerigar
approximately 45 minutes after oral
administration of barium. PV Proventriculus
8 MHz microconvex transducer (ATL
HDI 5000; Philips AG Medical Systems,
Zurich, Switzerland) with a contact sur-
face of approximately 0
72
7 cm, good
quality images of budgerigars weighing
more than 40 g can be obtained, while
the distance between xiphoid process and
pubic bones and a concave ventral abdom-
inal wall limits the approach in birds
weighing less than 40 g.
Renal neoplasia is frequently accompa-
nied by massive organ enlargement and
complex parenchymal lesions. Because of
secondary compression of the abdominal
air sacs and displacement of the adjacent
intestinal loops, the neoplastic kidney can
be easily identified ultrasonographically as
a round, non-homogeneous structure
through the ventromedian window (Fig 6)
(Enders and others 1994, Krautwald-
Junghanns and Enders 1994, Gumpen-
berger and Scope 2001). After the first
diagnosis of a urogenital neoplasia based
on radiological findings, ultrasonographic
investigation can be helpful in differentiat-
ing gonadal tumours from kidney tumours.
In the authors’ experience, gonadal tumours
are often homogeneous and well demar-
cated. A layer of kidney tissue is clearly
discernible between the synsacrum and
the soft tissue masses; in contrast, kidney
tumours are generally heterogeneous, and
no discrete renal tissue can be visualised
between the synsacrum and tumour mass
(Fig 7).
TREATMENT
Therapeutic options for renal neoplasia in
budgerigars are limited due to the bird’s
small size and the well-protected location
of the tumour.
Surgical treatment
Although surgery is suggested for several
types of abdominal tumours, unless they
are contained and pedunculated, renal

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FIG 7. Longitudinal (A) and transverse (B)
ultrasonographic image (ventromedian
approach) of the coelom of a budgerigar with
testicular tumour, histologically described
as seminom. Note the hypoechogenic soft
tissue mass (M), which is well defined from the
kidneys (k) that can be seen ventrally and
appear more hyperechogenic. Both kidneys are
of similar size and density
neoplasm are virtually impossible to
remove successfully because access to their
respective arteries is restricted by the
tumour, and the short distance of their
artery to the aorta makes ligation or for-
ceps haemostasis difficult or impossible.
Additionally, birds will often die during
or shortly after ligation or physical re-
moval of tumours, unless aggressive fluid
therapy is administered (Harrison 1984).
Medical treatment
Corticosteroids may play an important role
in tumour control by reducing peritumoral
inflammation and oedema (Rosenthal
1993). One author noted the use of 20
mg/kg methylprednisolone as a palliative
therapy in a budgerigar with renal neo-
508
S. Simova-Curd and others
plasm (Bauck 1992). Neither the route
of administration or duration of treatment
were mentioned in that case report nor
was the outcome of the therapy. However,
it should be noted that corticosteroids
should be used with caution in birds and
may predispose it to a secondary disease,
such as fungal infection (Filippich 2004).
Chemotherapy
Only limited data about the use of chemo-
therapeutic agents in avian patients are
available to date. The significant differ-
ences between avian and mammalian ana-
tomy and physiology have to be taken
into consideration when extrapolating
pharmacokinetic data from one species
to another. Metabolic drug scaling appears
to be a helpful tool in designing a chemo-
therapeutic treatment regimen.
Chemotherapy involves the use of cyto-
toxic drugs to treat neoplastic disease.
These drugs are generally administered
at a dose that gives maximum tumourici-
dal effect with minimal normal tissue tox-
icity. Toxicity often occurs in varying
degrees and, if severe, may require a delay,
reduction or discontinuation of subse-
quent drug doses.
Toxicity most commonly occurs in
organs containing rapidly dividing cells,
such as bone marrow and the alimentary
tract. Haematological toxicity (leucopenia,
thrombocytopenia) is usually detected
within seven to 14 days after dosing. Ali-
mentary tract signs (inappetence/anorexia,
regurgitation and weight loss) can occur
and have been observed in birds following
administration of cyclophosphamide, doxo-
rubicin, 1-asparaginase, cisplatin and car-
boplatin (Filippich 2004). But generally,
these signs are mild and do not require
dose modification. In addition to the sys-
temic toxicity, many chemotherapeutic
agents need to be given strictly intrave-
nously as extravasation can cause signifi-
cant tissue damage, potentially leading
to sloughing of a limb or to self-mutilation
of the avian patient.
In avian medicine, chemotherapy is
increasingly being tried, although its use
is limited because of the lack of experi-
mental and clinical studies in birds and
workplace health and safety issues.
The platinum analogue 5 mg/kg carbo-
platin diluted 1:10 with sterile water,
Journal of Small Animal Practice
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September 2006
Ó 2006 British Small Animal Veterinary Association
administered once a month for three
months intravenously into the right jugu-
lar vein, has been used for treatment of
a renal adenocarcinoma in a male budger-
igar (Macwhirter and others 2002). After
the second injection, an improvement was
observed and the bird could stay normally
on the perch. After three months, the
bird’s condition gradually deteriorated
and an enlargement of the mass was visible
on repeated radiographs. Although it was
unsuccessful, an improvement was ini-
tially observed in the course of treatment.
However, carboplatin may be useful as
a chemotherapeutic agent for early renal
tumours where birds show signs of leg
paresis but have not progressed to renal
failure. Infection probably played a role
in the death of this budgerigar as carbopla-
tin can be myelosuppressive. Possibly,
early treatment with higher doses of carbo-
platin, while monitoring white cell counts
and early intervention with antibiotics
may help improve quality of life and
increase survival time. For an excellent
review of the use of the platinum drugs
in the avian patient with cancer and the
appropriate pharmacokinetic data, the
reader is encouraged to read the article
by Fillippich and Charles (2004).
RESEARCH ABOUT TUMOUR
TYPE AND SEX PREDILECTION
According to Bauck (1992), the most
common histologically differentiated
tumour types that involve the kidney
of budgerigars are adenocarcinomas and
adenomas. Reports about renal neoplasia
from North America show a predomi-
nance of renal carcinomas (Gardner
and others 1981, Petrak and Gillmore
1982, Bauck 1984). This is in marked
contrast to European reports, in which
the majority of tumours are nephroblasto-
mas (Blackmore 1966, Neumann and
Kummerfeld 1983). An exception to this
is Beach (1962) who described 42 carcino-
mas and only one nephroblastoma in the
UK. However, the clinical symptoms of
nephroblastoma are essentially the same
as those of renal adenocarcinomas, with
the exception of its occurrence in a younger
age group (Bauck 1992). To the authors’
knowledge, the reason for this discrepancy

in findings between the continents is yet
unresolved.
In 1948, Feldmann and Olson (cited in
Löliger 1992) mentioned that the term
‘nephroblastoma’ has been used in Euro-
pean pathology literature as a collective
term for all kidney tumours in poultry.
As described by Meuten (2002), the crit-
ical histological feature of embryonal
nephromas (nephroblastomas) is a disor-
ganised mixture of embryonal, epithelial
and mesenchymal tissues, the most
impressive of which are embryonic glo-
meruli formed by tufts of epithelium that
invaginate into a lumen that is lined by
epithelial cells with little cytoplasm. These
structures will be in various stages of dif-
ferentiation. Embryonic glomeruli are sur-
rounded by irregular branching tubules
that have lumens of various sizes; some
form small acini or tubules and others
are elongated and dilated into a collecting
drainage-like system. A classic pattern
is proliferation of epithelial cells in the
centre of which are partially devel-
oped tubules and glomeruli, and all these
structures are encompassed by variable
amounts of loose mesenchymal stroma.
Foci of undifferentiated, proliferating
blast-like cells with no visible cytoplasm
will be scattered through the tumour.
On the other hand, renal adenomas are
composed of well-differentiated tubules
and acini that may be subclassified as
tubular, papillary or solid based on the
major histological pattern. Mixtures of
all three types can occur, but this is seen
more frequently with renal carcinoma.
Cytological and nuclear features are
uniform and benign. The histological
distinction of renal adenoma from carci-
noma is difficult because carcinomas may
be well differentiated.
Renal carcinomas can be classified as
well as papillary, tubular and solid, which
refers to the predominant type of histolog-
ical organisation, but mixtures of these
types can be present in one tumour.
The most common of these tumour types
seen in domestic animals is tubular. Its
distinguishing histological feature is the
formation of elongated, irregular tubules
with lumens. Interstitial stroma ranges
from mild, with just enough stroma for
tubules to rest on, to marked desmoplastic
reactions. If present, a capsule is not com-
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Renal neoplasia in budgerigars
plete. Tumours tend to grow by pushing
at the edges more than by infiltration. Cel-
lular morphology has a range of patterns
depending on the degree of differentia-
tion. The more differentiated varieties
resemble adenoma and the less differenti-
ated varieties have features of reduced
cytoplasmic area, indistinct cell borders,
nuclear crowding, various sizes and shapes
of nuclei, mitoses and vesicular chromatin
(Meuten 2002).
Blackmore (1966) also used the term
nephroblastoma for renal tumours in
budgerigars, but no description of the his-
tological findings are given that could be
used to corroborate this classification. In
the study by Neumann and Kummerfeld
(1983), all the investigated tumours from
budgerigars are described as nephroblas-
toma. They used the term nephroblastoma
according to the criteria mentioned by
Helmbolt and Jortner (1966) and stated
that ‘‘probably this term will not remain
undisputed’’. The histological description
of their findings rather meets the criteria of
adenoma/carcinoma mentioned above.
The authors themselves state that their
diagnosis of nephroblastoma should be
considered provisional. Thus, the per-
ceived discrepancy of different renal
tumours in budgerigars between the
USA and Europe might be caused by an
incorrect use of the term nephroblastoma
in Europe. In the past five years, all kidney
tumours of budgerigars investigated at the
Institute for Animal Pathology, University
of Bern, Switzerland, were considered as
adenocarcinomas or carcinomas at histo-
logical evaluation (Simova-Curd, personal
observation).
Blackmore (1966) reported that with
the exception of testicular tumours, metas-
tases in birds are uncommon, although
FIG 8. (A) Macroscopic view of normal k, L
local infiltration of the spine was seen in
and T in budgerigar. (B) Macroscopic view of
several cases of renal neoplasia in the soft tissue mass (M), adenocarcinoma,
authors’ clinic. The results of Arnall involving both the kidneys (k). Lungs (L) and
tests (T) are seen as well
(1965) are similar to that of Blackmore
(1966) – only one of a total of 186 neo-
plasias metastasised. Filip and Scope (Fig 8). Renal masses occur more fre-
(2002) reported that only eight (9
3 per quently in young- to middle-aged male
cent) of 86 tumours, histologically classi- budgerigars and are often located in the
fied as malignant, metastasised. anterior pole of the affected kidney (Bauck
Macroscopically, renal adenomas and 1984).
adenocarcinomas are large, somewhat fri- According to Neumann and Kummer-
able, usually localised, nodular swellings feld (1983), kidney tumours in budgeri-
and vary from white, tan to red-brown gars mainly occur within the fifth year
509

of life. In the study by Gould and others
(1993), investigating tumours in 13
budgerigars, nine were male. They men-
tioned that in a survey of previous publi-
cations where the sex of budgerigars with
renal neoplasia was noted, 67
5 per cent
were male. The reason why these kidney
tumours affect more male than female
birds is still unknown.
VIRUS ISOLATION
One of the first authors to suspect an
involvement of a retrovirus in the aetiol-
ogy of renal tumours in budgerigars and
other parakeet were Gardner and others
(1981). They concluded that the most
common internal tumours in budgerigars
were carcinomas of the kidney, testis and
ovary. In chickens, carcinomas of the
genitourinary tract are most commonly
caused by an infectious type C retrovirus
(avian leucosis virus [ALV] and sarcoma
virus [SV]). In chickens and other animals
harbouring infectious retroviruses (for
example, mice or cats), the virus particles
are usually readily detected by electron
microscopy in tumour tissues. The
authors attempted to determine whether
tumour-bearing parakeets also had
demonstrable retrovirus particles. A total
of 44 tumours, 38 malignant and six
benign, were examined by electron
microscopy using the same procedure as
for the detection of retrovirus particles
in tissues from wild mice and domestic
cats. However, in parakeets, no type C
or other virus particles were seen.
Neumann and Kummerfeld (1983)
further investigated the possibility of a
retrovirus as an aetiological agent. The
ELISA performed by Neumann and
Kummerfeld (1983) gave evidence of
the presence of ALV group-specific anti-
gens in sera from 35 (47
3 per cent) of
the 74 budgerigars examined but did
not allow the conclusion that the presence
of this antigen is specific for birds with
kidney tumours, as it was also found in
budgerigars which did not have renal neo-
plasia. Some birds with positive sera had
no detectable tumour, and some birds
with negative sera had classic lymphoid
leucosis-like lesions. If nephrogenic post-
embryonic rests serve as target cells for
510
S. Simova-Curd and others
ALV, and as in the chickens, budgerigars
have to be infected congenitally or very
early after hatching to develop a high inci-
dence of tumours, the peak of tumour
development in the fifth year of life sug-
gests an extraordinary long latent period.
Explanations for this phenomenon will
remain speculative until further investiga-
tion on the susceptibility of budgerigars to
ALV, the possible role of endogenous
ALV and the modes of transmission are
understood.
In another study, Gould and others
(1993) examined renal carcinomas from
13 budgerigars by ELISA and dot-blot
hybridisation for the presence of sequences
hybridising with a full-length clone of
Rous-associated virus 2 (RAV-2), strain
of ALV/SV (ALSV 5). The birds were
between three and eight years of age, with
a median of 5
1 years. ELISA tests to
detect the presence of the specific protein,
p27, of ALSV and virus isolation attempts
were negative. The absence of p27 in the
tumours, as evidenced by the negative
ELISA tests, was found to be in contrast
with the finding of Neumann and
Kummerfeld (1983). Gould and others
(1993) concluded that the difference
between the ELISA test results was related
to the different ELISA test as opposed to
the different media tested. DNA from
eight tumours was examined with dot-blot
hybridisation for the presence of sequences
hybridising with the full-length clone of
the RAV-2 of the ALV. A positive reaction
was detected with DNA in six of eight
tumours. These results suggested the
presence of a retrovirus in tumours in
budgerigars.
Conclusions
It can be said that there is an increased sus-
ceptibility of budgerigars to renal neopla-
sia. Kidney tumours were mainly found
within the fifth year of life. In most of
the studies, male budgerigars were more
often affected than females. Adenocarci-
nomas and adenomas were the most fre-
quently detected tumour types: these
tumours seem to have a low tendency to
metastasise. The most frequently seen
clinical sign is paresis of one leg. Radiog-
raphy and ultrasonography are important
diagnostic tools. Tumours are more often
detected on lateral radiographs than on
Journal of Small Animal Practice
Vol 47
September 2006
Ó 2006 British Small Animal Veterinary Association
ventrodorsal radiographs, and ultrasonog-
raphy can be beneficial where differentia-
tion between kidney, gonadal and liver
tumours is of concern. An increase of
serum uric acid levels in bilateral renal
neoplasia and haematuria may be
expected, but further studies are needed
to ascertain these clinical parameters.
Therapeutic options using steroids or che-
motherapy have been used with question-
able results.
The study by Neumann and Kummer-
feld (1983) and the study by Gould and
others (1993), which investigated the rela-
tion between retroviruses and renal neo-
plasia in budgerigars, concluded that
a retrovirus could be involved. However,
no definite proof has been made that a ret-
rovirus is the actual causative agent.
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