6 Physics 2

ELECTRIC
ELECTRIC
CURRENT IN
VARIOUS MEDIA
cover
Electric Current In
Various Media
Electric current can flow
through the metals quite easily.
What about the current in vari-
ous media such as in semicon-
ductors, liquids and gases. If is
important to investigate the cur-
rent in semiconductors because
it has changed our lives very
much. In electronic circuits. to
make diodes, transistors and
integrated circuits the behaviour
of electric charges should be
analysed very well. We will
introduce also an important dis-
covery, i.e, superconductivity
which enables as to make elec-
tric circuits having no resist-
ance.
– +
A lain and glass decreases. (α < 0). The temperature coefficent of some materials is
R When the temperature of a conductor increases its lenght increases not so much.
Figure 6.1 Resistance varies with tem-
perature.
Figure 6.2 ???
108
6.1 RESISTANCE-TEMPERATURE
RELATION OF A CONDUCTOR
Electric current is formed by the motion of electrons through a conductor. If we
apply a voltage across a steel wire and then heat it we see that the current passing
through it decreases. This shows us the current in a conductor changes with tem-
perature(figure 6.1)
If the resistance of a conductor atan initial temperatuer, to is Ro and at a final tem-
perature t, is R.Then the relationship between these resistances and temperatures is
given by
R – R0
= α(t – to) or
R
R = Ro[1+ α(t – to)]
Where the proportionality constant, α is called the temperature coefficent of resis-
tivity of the substance which depends on the material by which the resistor is made.
The resistance of all metals increase with the increasing temperature (α > 0). But
the resistance of some alloys, i.e, manganin and constantan does not change with
temperature. On the other hand the resistance of some electrolytes, carbon, porce-
given in table 6.1.
So the increase in the resistance is due to the increase in the resistivity of the con-
l
ductor.We can find the resistivity - temperature relation by R = ρ . Substituting R
S
= Ro[1 + α (t – to)] in that formula we get,
ρ = ρ0[1 + α(T – T0)]
Actually the temperature coefficent of resistivity also changes slightly with tempera-
ture. But this change can be ignored especially when the temperature change is not
big.
We must use true matrerials for our purposes. For example to construct measuring
devices such as voltmeter, ampermeter we must use the materials of constant resist-
ance. The materials of changing resistance with temperature such as platinium are
used to make resistance tehermometers. These thermometers are used to measure
very low and very high temperatures at which the liquid thermometers connot work.
Electricity and Magnetism
 Example 4.5 Re s i s t a n c e o f a l i g h t b u l b
Solution
A light bulb whose filament is made of tungsten R = R 0 (1 + α∆t)
has a resistance of 240 Ω when white hot
(approximately 1800 °C). Find the approximate 240 = R 0 ⎡1 + 4.5 ⋅10 −3(1800 − 20) ⎤
⎣ ⎦
resistance of the bulb at 20 °C room temperature.
240 = R 0 (1 + 8.01)
(Assume that the temperature coeffictent of
resistance for tunsten is 4.5·10–3 °C–1) 240
R0 = ≅ 26.64 Ω
9.01

6.2 Superconductivity
In 1911 a Dutch physicist H. K. Onnes when he cooled mercury, saw that the resist-
ance of mercury decreased. When the temperature is around 4.2 K the resistance
dropped suddenly to zero. This phenomenon is called as superconductivity. Some Substance Tc(K)
other substances and alloys also perform superconductivity below certain very low
YBa2Cu3O7 92
temperatures called transition temperature,Tk.
What happens when a substance becomes a superconductor. When you apply a Tl - Ba - Ca - Cu - O 125
potential difference acronss a closed loop some current pass. If this loop were made
by a superconductor the current is maintained for a long time after uninstalling the HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8 134
electric source. Because almost no energy would be lost as heat in the wires. The
current in the loop by ordinary wires stops quickly. Scientists make research to find Pb 7,18
substances that become superconductor at higher transition temperatures. Before
1986 the highest transition temperature for some substance was around 25 K. Hg 4,2
To decrease the temperrature of these materials to this low temperature mostly
Su 3,7
needed liquid helium which is quite expensive. In 1987 a compound of barium, cop-
per, yttrium and oxygen (YBa2Cu3O7) was invented to become a superconductor at
Zn 0,9
92 K. This was an important development about superconductivity because liquid
nitrogen, which is easily found and cheaper, can be used to hold cold that com- Table 6.2 The transition tempera-
pound. Later research has been reported new materials to be superconducting tures of some substances.
around 134 K but they are fragile. The transition temperature of some substences
are given in the table 6.2
Superconductors would be useful in many areas of technology. The motors, and
generators would be four or five times smaller than today. Computers would be
much more faster. The electric energy would be transferred more easily and cheap-
er because no energy would be lost as heat in the transmission lines. Much more
stronger electromagnets would be made by superconductors which can store much
more energy.

6.3 Electric Current in Semiconductors

Semiconductors are materials that are in between conductors and insulators
according to their conductivity of electric current. The most commonly used semi-
conductors in electronic circuits are silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge). The resistivity
- temperature relation of the semiconductors is quite different that of conductors.
The resistivity of a semiconductor decreases quickly as its temperature increases.
Figure 6.2 The cristallic structure
So they behave just like an insulator at very low temperatures.
of a semiconductor

Electric Current in Various Media 109

 A semiconductor contains four valance eletrons in its outermast shell. Their cristal-
lic structure is shown in figure 6.2
When some energy is given (when it is heated) to a semiconductor. Some valance
defterde bu þekil var ama electrons begin to move from an atom to a neighbour atom like the free eletrons
anlaþýlamadý moving in the metal. Becuse the kinetic energy of the particles increase and valance
electrons can breake the bound to nuclei. When an electric field is applied, they
form an electric current. As one electron escape from its own atom and move
toward another atom it lefts a “hole” for the electron which comes from nearby
Figure 6.2 ??? atom. And the process goes on. Whenever an electron leaves, it creates a new hole.
This hole (deficiency of electron in the site) can be assumed as a positive charge,
+e and acts as a charge carrier.So as the negative electrons move in one direction,
the positive holes move in the opposite through the seimconductor. In a pure semi-
conductor there are equal number of electrons and holes. So it is overall neutral.
defterde bu þekil var ama The holes (because they are positive) move in the direction of electric field and elec-
anlaþýlamadý trons opposite to the field.
The electron – hole conduction of current in a semiconductor can be represented
as in the following figure 6.3.
(a) When there is no electric field there are a free electron and a hole.
Figure 6.3 ???
(b) When an external electric field is applied the free electron begin to move oppo-
site to the field. At that moment another electron from nearby atom also move in
that direction.
(c) This appears a movement of holes in the direction of the electric field.
silicon
6.4 Doping semiconductors
arsenic The conductivity of semiconductors at room temperature is not big because of the
atom small number of free electrons it contains. When an impurity is added to a semi-
conductor, its conductivity may be changed and they perform very useful properties
extra (free) in electronic circuils. Adding an impurity to a semiconductor is called “doping the
electron
semiconductor”. According to the type of the impurity used we can make two types
of doped semiconductor. If the impurity is an element having five valance electrons
such as arsenic, added to a semiconductor, only four electrons of arsenic fit into the
Figure 6.4 A semiconductor is doped structure.The fifth electron cannot fit and move freely, just like the free electrons in
by arsenic having five valance electrons. a metal. This process is shown in the figure 6.4
The amount of impurity added to semiconductor is obout one - millionth of that of
the semiconductor. Doping by only that very small amount of impurity, the conduc-
silicon tivity of the semiconductors increases by thousand times. The conductivity of a
doped semiconductor can be controlled as we shall see in transistors. When we
dope a semiconductor by an element having five valance electrons such as arsenici
aluminum t is called a n-type semiconductor. Because the current is carried by free electrons
(negative charges). The impurity is called as donor atom and this way of doping as
hole donoring.
We can add another impurity having there valance electrons, such as galium or alu-
minum which is called an acceptor. As we see in the figure 6.5 there is a hole near
the impurity and this hole will be filled an electron from the nearby silicon atom leav-
Figure 6.5 A semiconductor is doped ing behind a hole.
by aluminum having three valance elec-
trons Then that hole will be filled with another electron from silicon atom and so on. So

110 Electricity and Magnetism

in this kind of doping of semiconductor, we have an extra hole and the current is car- – –
+
ried by these positive holes. This is called a p-type semiconductor. + –
– –
Note that both n - type and p - type semiconductors are overall neutral. Because + –
–
each atom in the semiconductor contains equal number of electrons and protons.
p-type n-type
(a)

6.5 Semiconductor Diodes E

+ – + –
An important application of p - type and n - type semiconductors are diodes.A diode +
is an electronic device that allows the current to pass only in one direction. Let’s have – +
–
a look how it accomplishes this. – +
+ –
– +
When a p - type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor are joined a p - n junc- p-type n-type
tion diode is formed. Remember that both p - type and n - type semiconductors are (b)
neutral.When they are joined electrons in the n - type near the junction diffuse to the
holes in the p - type semiconductor. The n - type semiconductor becomes positive- Figure 6.6 a) Electrons diffuse from n-
type to p-type at the junction. b) An electric
ly charged on the other hand the p - type negatively as shown in figure 6.6a
field is produced from n-type to p-tye.
Thus an electric field is produced in the direction from n - type to p - type semicon-
ductor and it prevents further electron transition as shown in figure 6.6 b current flows

When a voltage is applied to a diode with the positive terminal to the p - type and + + – –
negative terminal to the n - type semiconductor. This connection is called forward +
+ + – –
biased. The external potential difference is opposite to the potential difference
+ – –
formed in the junction. The positive holes in the p - type are repelled by the positive + +
–
terminal of the battery. So a current flow through the diode in the direction from p- p-type n-type
type to n-type as shown in the figure 6.7.
+ –
The U-I graph of a forward biased diode is shown in figure 6.8.
Figure 6.7 Forward biased diode. A
Note that the graph starts from an initial voltage. This is because of the reverse current flows from p-type to n-type.
potential difference produecd in the p - n junction before applying an external volt-
age. This potential difference is 0,3 V for germanium and 0,6 V for silicon semicon- I
ductors. When the terminals are rewersed in other words the diode is reverse biased,
the holes are attracted by negative terminal and the electrons are by positive termi-
nal of the battery as shown in figure 6.9.
The holes and electrons cannot meet at the junction and no current flows through
the diode. But in practise a very small amount of reverse current can be detected in U
the range of uA for Germainium and pA for silicon diodes. These are negligible val-
ues. Figure 6.8 U-I graph of forward biased
diode.
A diode is symbolized as in electric circuits. Diodes are used to rectify alter-
nating current into direct courent. A simple rectifier circuit is drawn in figure 6.10. no current
+ –
+ –
+ –
+ –
output p-type n-type

– +

Figure 6.9 A reverse biased diode. No

Figure 6.10 A rectifier current flows in the circuit.

Electric Current in Various Media 111

 collector
p n p
emiter 6.6 Transistors
A transistor is formed by three semiconductors, one type is placed between the
base same type of other two. So we have two kinds of transistors that is pnp and npn as
shown in the figure 6.11a
Their
collector emiter
n p n
The three outer regions of a transistor are called collector, base and emitter. The
symbols of the two kinds of transistors are given in figure 6.11.b
Figure 6.11.a
The arrow is always put on the emitter and shows the direction of electric current
collector when the transistor is connected in a circuit. How a transistor operates in a circuit
can be explained with the help of a circuit drawn in figure 6.12.
base
pnp emitter
A voltage of, UC∈ is applied between the collector and emitter by the battery of εC.
Another battery of εB applies a voltage of UBE between the base and emitter and is
called base bias voltage. When the point - B is at high (positive) potential, UEB is
collector
positive, the free electrons from the emitter are attracted toward the base and they
base can pass to the collector because the base is very thin (approximentely 1 µm). So a
npn emitter large current can pass from collector to emitter that is started by a small current, IB
Figure 6.11.b in the base.
When the base bias voltage is changed sligtlly by the ac source a large
IC change in the current, Ic dectected through collector to emitter. As a
collector
result a change is caused in the output voltage across the resistance RC.
– – n RC output So, a transistor can increases a small input signal to a larger one on the
RB
output, that is, we say it can amplify the weak input signals. Transistors
B Ibase – – – UCE
p are the basic circuit elements of the amplifiers. A pnp transistor operates
+ in the same way but the current carriers in this case are holes instead of
– – – – eC electrons.
UBE n
+
eb – – Transistors are one of the main circuit elements in electronic devices.
–
emitter
Many transistors, diodes, resistors and so on are ensmalled in a very
E small area and manufactured “integrated circuits or chips” which are
Figure 6.12 An amplifier. used in computers.

6.7 ELECTRIC CURRENT IN LIQUIDS

We know that the electric charges can flow through metals easily. The semiconduc-
tors become conductors under some circumtances which we have learned in the
previous sections.
A C Experiments show that pure water does not conduct electric current. This means
–
there is no charge carriekrs in pure water. The salt, sodium chloride also does not
Cl
A
conduct of electric current (Figure 6.13).
Na+
Because the salt molecules splits into Na+ and Cl– ions in the water and they begin
+ –
to move to the electrodes A and C in the electric field produced by the battery. So
electric current is because of the electron motion in the metal wires and positive and
U
negative ions in the salty water.
Figure 6.13 Positive and negative ions
The solutions in which electric current can flow are called electrolystes. Salty water,
are the charge carriers in an electrolyte.

112 Electricity and Magnetism

sugary water or solutions of AgNO3 are some electrolytes. The metallic rods sub- anode cathode
merged into an electrolyte (the rods A nd C) are called electrodes. The electrode
connected to the positive terminal of battery is called anode and the other electrode
as cathode. Ag+

NO+3
6.8 FARADAY ’S LAW FOR ELECTROLYSIS
Consider we have two electrodes of different metals such as silver and copper are + –

submerged into water and copper are submerged into water and then connected to
the terminals of a battery. When some silvernitrate (AgNO3) is added into water the Figure 6.14
Ag+ and NO–3 ions are dissolved in water. Ag+ ions begni to move to the cathode
(which is copper electrode) and accepts one electron from the cathode. As a result
it becomes neutral. On the other hand the NO–3 ions move to tha anode. An elec-
tric current flows and the copper electrode is plated by silver. This is called as elec-
troplating in technology and is used to protect metals from oxidation or decoratian.
Michael Faraday found an equation showing the relationship between the amount of
substances which are decomposed at the anode or deposited at the cathode and the
current passing through the electrolyte. That is the amount of substance decom-
posed or deposited on the elctrodes d in an electrolysis is proportional to the elec-
tric charge that passes through the system.
M = k∆q = kIt
Where k is the coefficant of electrochemical constant of the element.

Example 6.2 ???

Determine the time to obtain 6 kg of copper in an electrolysis when passing a current of 100 A. (k=3.3×10–7 kg/A·t)
Solution
According to Faraday law we write
M 6 kg
M = kIt ⇒ t= = −7
≅ 1.8 ×10 5 s
kI 3.3 × 10 kg/A ⋅ t) (100 A)
t ≅ 50 hours

current flows
6.9 ELECTRIC CURRENT IN GASES
Gases are insulators. They do not conduct electric current because they do not con-
tain ions at normal conditions. A gas can become a conductor when its atoms
become positively or negatively charged ions during a process. One way to ionize
the atoms of a gas is to heat it (Figure 6.15). As we heat the gas the kinetic energy
of the atoms increases. When the kinetic energy of an atom exceeds the binding + –
energy to ionize. If the temperature of the gas is so big all atoms ionize and the gas
becomes a mixture of ions and electrons. This state of substance is called plasma. Figure 6.15 When a gas heated
A substance in plasma state is a good conductor of electric current. enough the gas atoms ionize.

Electric Current in Various Media 113

 The gas atoms can be ionized and become electrically conductor by the effect of
electromagnetic radiation (Figure 6.16).
This kind of ionization of gases is called as the discharge of a gas by external ion-
izators. (by heating or by radiation)
An electric current can flow through a gas without an external ionizator. When the
electric field inside the gas is big enough. In very strong electric field (under very
hight voltage) an electron can gain huge kinetic energy over a small distance that
+ – when it strikes an atom, the atom becomes an ion. Then two electrons gaining huge
kinetic energy stirek other atoms and more atoms become ions and so on. So num-
Figure 6.16 The gas in the tube ber of electrons and ions increases in the gas and electric current begin to flow
becomes electrically charged by an external
through the gas. This kind of ionization of the gas is called discharge by self-ioniza-
ionizator.
tors.
Discharging (becoming conductor) of a gas is used to prepare lamps containing
gas, especially for illuminating bilboards (Figure 6.18).

...

+ –

Figure 6.17 Discharging by self-ionizators.

Figure 6.18 Various types of gases used in the lamps

becomes electrically conductor.

Chapter Review
– The resistance of a circit element varies with temperature according to the
expression
R = R0[1 + α(T–T0)] or

ρ = ρ0[1 + α(T–T0)]

– The resistance of some substance drops suddenly to zero alt some very law tem-
peratures called transition temperature. This phenomenon is known as super
conductivity.
– Semiconductors are materials between the conductors and insulators.
– When a semiconductor is doped with an impurity element having three valance
electrons is called p-type semiconductor. Impurity is called acceptor atom.
– When a semiconductor is doped with an impurity element having five valance
electrons is called n-type semiconductor. Impurity is called donor atom.

114 Electricity and Magnetism

– A semiconductor diode permits current to flow in one direction. When it is for-
ward biased. If it is reverse biased no current flows.
– A transistor of formed by three semiconductors, one type is placed between the
same type of other two.
– There are two kinds of transistors: pnp and npn.
– Electric current can flow through the electrolystes which are solutions of some
compounds.
– Faraday’s law for electrolysis can be expressed as
M = kIt
– Gases are normally insulators. A gas may become a conductor (discharges) by
the external ionizators such as by heating or by electromagnetic radiation.
– When the temperature of a gas is so big its atoms ionized and the gas becomes
a mixture of ions and electrons. This state of matter is called as plasma.
– Applying a very high potential to a neutral gas it may become conductor of elec-
tric current (discharge) by self-ionizators, i.e collisions of electrons to atoms.

Electric Current in Various Media 115

116 Electricity and Magnetism
6.7 ELECTRIC CURRENT IN LIQUIDS Anode Cathode

In the system shown in Figure 6.13, when the switch is closed, the lamp does not
light up, but, if substances such as H2SO4, NaCl or NaOH are added to the pure Ag+
water, the lamp lights up. Solutions of acid (H2SO4), salt (NaCl) or base (NaOH) in NO3–
Ag Cu
water can conduct electric current. These kinds of solutions are called electrolytes.
The metal bars immersed into the electrolyte are called electrodes. The chemical + –

process during current flow through an electrolyte is called electrolysis. An electrode

connected to the positive terminal of the battery is called an anode, and the elec- Figure 6.14 An electrolytic cell
trode connected to the negative terminal is called a cathode.
Electric current is produced by the motion of free electrons in metal conductors. It is also
produced by the motion of ions in the electrolytes. According to the ion theory, estab-
lished by Arrhenius (1859-1928), acid, base or salt split into charged particles called ions
when they dissolve in water. These ions can be either positive or negative. For instance
when sodium chloride (NaCl, salt) is dissolved in water, sodium ions (Na+) and chloride
ions (Cl–) are separated. Here, sodium ions are sodium atoms that become positively
charged by leaving one outermost electron behind. Chloride ions are chlorine atoms
which have gained one extra electron.
The motion of the ions in the electric field produces current. Figure 6.14 depicts how the
electric current is produced.
Negative charges travel from the battery to the cathode, and in the anode, electrons are
pulled toward the positive (+) pole of the battery. Thus, the anode is charged positively
and the cathode is charged negatively. Due to the electric field between the electrodes,
ions in the electrolyte are set into motion. Positive ions move towards the cathode and
negative ions move towards the anode. Positive ions in the cathode absorb enough elec-
trons to become neutral. Negative ions arriving at in the anode give their electrons to the
anode to become neutral atoms.
After a certain time interval, the number of electrons taken from the cathode becomes
equal to the number of electrons given to the anode. Thus, in an electrolyte, current is
conducted by ions that have both “+” and “–” charges. So, current is generated by the
motion of the ions in the electrolyte and by the motion of the free electrons out of the
electrolyte, i.e. the outer circuit.
In an electric circuit if there is an electrolyte Ohm’s law is applicable, but the fact that an
opposite emf is contributed should be kept in mind.
Now, let us study the electrolysis of silver nitrate in water, and how Faraday’s law is relat-
ed to the matter collected at the cathode.
Electrolysis of a solution of silver nitrate.
A current flows through a solution of Silver nitrate (AgNO3) in water placed inside an Anode Cathode
electrolytic cell. This electrolytic cell contains an anode and a cathode that are made of
silver and copper, respectively.
Ag+
For silver nitrate in water, the following reaction occurs, NO3–
– Ag Cu
AgNO3 → Ag+ + NO3
+ –
–
the dissolved Ag+, NO3 ions are given to the water. Ag+ ions in the electrolyte travel to electrolyte
–
the cathode when NO3 ions travel to the anode. Every silver ion that reaches the cath-
Figure 2.15 An electrolytic cell, caus-
ode takes one electron from the cathode and becomes neutral. These neutral silver ing electrolysis of silver nitate

Electric Current in Various Media 117

 atoms are collected on the cathode, thus, silver plating is obtained. When
–
NO3 ions reach the anode they give up an electron and become neutral.
–
These electrons travel through the conductor. NO3 forms AgNO3 at the Ag
O2
electrode. Thus, the following reaction occurs,
H2 –
NO3 + Ag+ → AgNO3
–
So, in the electrolyte Ag+ and NO3 ions are formed. As a result silver is dis-
solved in the anode and collected in the cathode. If we examine the elec-
trodes at the initial and final states of electrolysis, it will be observed that the
increase in the mass of the cathode and the decrease in the mass of the
anode are equal.
Practically in silver plating, instead of using AgNO3 solution as an electrolyte,
+ –
complex silver salts are used, in this way stronger and better plating can be
achieved.

6.8 The Electrolysis of water

Figure 2.16 An electrolytic cell, causing electrolysis
of water
Let us see how we separate the hydrogen and oxygen ions in water using
electrolysis.
Water is not a good conductor, since it does not contain enough ions to
conduct current. However, if a small amount of H2SO4 is added to the
water, it becomes a good conductor.
In the system shown in Figure 6.16 the electrodes are made of platinum,
and the tubes are filled with H2SO4 and water (Electrolyte). When the current
flows around the circuit, it is observed that the amount of gas bubbles
increases and these collect at the top of the tubes, whilst the level of water
inside the tube decreases . The volume of gas collected at the cathode is
twice the volume of gas collected at the anode. Hydrogen is collected at the
cathode whereas oxygen is collected at the anode.

In the water sulphuric acid solution,

–
H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO4
–
the H+ and SO4 ions are dissolved in the water. When H+ ions have
reached the cathode, they take an electron from the cathode and
become neutral. Since H2 has no effect on H2SO4 and water, it is col-
–
+ – + – lected as a gas in the cathode. In the same way SO4 ions reach the
anode and give up an electron, to become neutral. This neutral SO4
undergoes the following reaction with water,
SO4 + H2O → H2SO4 + 1/2 O2
+ – + –

battery
Oxygen atoms combine in groups of two to form oxygen molecules, O2,
and they are collected as oxygen gas at the anode. At the beginning of
Figure 2.17 Series connection of the process sulphuric acid is added to the water, and during this process
hydrogen pots it is not expended. Thus, sulphuric acid has the role of providing ions for

118 Electricity and Magnetism

current flow. Since sulphate and hydrogen ions are produced continuously, the + –
quantity of ions in the solution stay constant during the electrolysis. As a result the
formation of hydrogen and oxygen yield a decrease in the amount of water in the
electrolyte. + –

Experiments show that 0.12 cm3

hydrogen and 0.06 cm3oxygen gas are produced L
when a charge of 1 coulomb passes through the circuit. Thus, the amount of gas
collected in the tubes is a measure of current in the circuit. If the oxygen tube is
removed and the hydrogen tube remains, a system called ‘hydrogen pot’ can be per- K + –
formed.

M
+ – + –

battery

Figure 2.18 Complex connection of

hydrogen pots.

Electric Current in Various Media 119

 Example 2.9
In an electrolysis experiment a cur-
rent of 1A flows through the circuit
in a 5 s time interval.
a) Find the masses of the hydro-
gen and oxygen gases.
b) Find the atomic numbers of
the hydrogen and oxygen
gases.
c) Find the amount of charge
needed for the production of
one hydrogen and one oxygen
atom.
???
Solution
a) Charge that passes through the circuit is calculated from,
q = i·t q = 1·5 = 5 C
For a charge of 1 coulomb, 0.12 cm3 of hydrogen and 0.06 cm3 of oxygen are
produced, so the volume of hydrogen is,
VH = 0.12 · 5 = 0.6 cm3 and VO = 0.6 × 5 = 0.3 cm3
The mass of hydrogen is,
MH = VH dH = 0.6 (8.4 · 10–5)
MH = 5.04·10–5 g
The mass of oxygen is,

d) How many hydrogen atoms MO = VO dO = 0.3 (1.3 × 10–3)

are produced for the same
quantity of charge responsible MO = 0.39 × 10–3 g
for producing one oxygen MH
b) The number of atoms of hydrogen =
atom? 1.66 ⋅ 10 −23
(dH = 8.4 · 10–5 g/cm3; 5.04 ⋅ 10 −5
=
1.66 ⋅ 10 −24
dO = 1.3 · 10–3 g/cm3;
≅ 30.4 ⋅ 1018 atoms
mass of a hydrogen
atom = 1.66 · 10–24 g; MO
The number of atoms of oxygen =
mass of an 2.7 ⋅ 10 −23
0.39 ⋅ 10 −3
oxygen atom = 2.7 · 10–23 g) =
2.7 ⋅ 10 −23
≅ 1.44 ⋅ 1018 atoms

c) If 30.4 · 1018 hydrogen atoms are produced due to 5 C of charge, 1 hydrogen

atom occurs for,
5
nH = 18
= 1.6 ⋅ 10 −19 C charge
30.4 ⋅ 10

In the same way for oxygen,

5
nO = 18
= 3.2 ⋅ 10 −19 C charge
14.4 ⋅ 10

is needed for the production of one oxygen atom.

3.2 ⋅ 10 −19 C
d) =2
1.6 ⋅ 10 −19 C
Thus, the charge responsible for the production of one oxygen atom is the same
as that responsible for the occurrence of 2 hydrogen atoms.

120 Electricity and Magnetism

6.9 Faraday’s Laws
Let us consider a circuit having electrolytic cells connected in series. These
electrolytic cells, shown in Figure 6.19, contain the same electrolytes but
have different, shapes, electrolyte temperatures, electrolyte densities and AgNO3 AgNO3 AgNO3
electrode separations (Figure 6.19)
After a time has elapsed it is seen that an equal amount of silver is deposit-
ed on each cathode. Thus, the amount of silver deposited does not depend + – + –

on the temperature, density or shape of the electrolyte nor on the separation battery
of the electrodes. The amount of deposited silver depends only on the
Figure 6.19 Series connection of electrolytic
amount of electric charge that passes through the system. cells according to Faraday’s first law.
Faraday’s first rule states,
The amount of substance decomposed or deposited on the electrodes during
electrolysis is proportional to the electric charge that passes through the sys-
tem.
So, the mass of substance deposited on an electrode is,
m=Kq=Kit
where the coefficient K is the electrochemical constant of the element. AgNO3 CuSO4 AuCl3

This time, let us consider the circuit shown in Figure 6.20. In this circuit the
electrolytic cells are again connected in series. But this time they contain dif-
ferent electrolytes (AgNO3, CuSO4, AuCl3). After a time has elapsed it is seen
that, the amount of Ag deposited on the cathode of the first electrolytic cell is 108
g
63
g
196
g
proportional to 108/1, the amount of Cu deposited on the cathode of the sec- 1 2 3
ond electrolytic cell is proportional to 63/2, and the amount of Au deposited on + – + –

the cathode of the third electrolytic cell is proportional to 196/3. That is, the battery
amount of substance deposited on the cathode is proportional to a term (A/n)
called the chemical equivalent mass, where A is the atomic mass and n is the Figure 6.20 Series connection of electrolytic
combining ratio. cells, according to Faraday’s second law.

Faraday’s second rule states

The mass of material deposited is proportional to its chemical equivalent mass,
which is the atomic mass divided by the combining ratio.
In the experiment performed, a charge of 96500 C is required to deposit 108/1 (A/n)
grams of silver, thus,

Electric Current in Various Media 121

 Example 6.2 ???
Solution
A charged particle having mass m The mass of nickel is,
and charge +q is released in a uni- M = V · d = S · h · d = 590 · 0.02 · 8.8
form electric field.
From Faraday’s second law,
Express the velocity and the posi-
tion of the particle in terms of elec- Ait
m=
tric field after a time interval t. 96500 n
(Gravitation and friction forces are 59 ⋅ 220 ⋅ t
neglected) 590 ⋅ 0.02 ⋅ 8.8 =
96500 ⋅ 2
t = 1544 s

122 Electricity and Magnetism

Electric Current in Various Media 123
11. A light bulb having a filament made of tungsten is 5. Is n-type semiconductor negatively charged? What
connected to 110 V. The light bulb draws 1.1 A while about p-type semiconductors?
it is operating at a temperature of 1830 K.
When the light bulb was first connected to the 110 V
potential, its initial temperature was 300 K. Calculate
the current drawn by the light bulb when it is oper-
ating at a temperature of 300 K.
(The temperature coefficient of resistance of tung-
sten = 4.6 · 10–3 °C–1)
6. How holes can be charge carriers? Explain.

12. The resistance of a wire is 1 ž at 20 ÞC. What are the

resistances at 0 ÞC and 100 ÞC? [a = 0.0039 ÞC–1]

7. What happens when you connect a diode forward

biased? Rewersed biased?

3. A germanium semiconductor is doped with phos-

phorus. Will these atoms be donors or acceptors?
What type of semiconductor will this be?
8. For what purposes a diode can be used?

4. How the resistance of semiconductors change with

temperature? Explain. 9. Can a diode be used to amplify signals?

124 Electricity and Magnetism

10. In a pnp or npn junction the middle layer must be
very thin? Why?

45. In the electrolysis of water, a con-

stant current of 0. 2 A is main-
tained for 10 min.
Determine,
a) the volume + –

b) the mass
of the hydrogen and oxygen gases collected in the
tubes.
(Where a charge of 1 C is delivered in the electroly-
sis, 0.12 cm3 of hydrogen and 0.06 cm3 of oxygen
is liberated).

46. In an electrolysis experiment 6.3 g of copper is

deposited on a cathode in 9650 s.
What is the current maintained in A?

47. In an electrolysis experiment, a current of 5 A is

maintained, and a mass of 1.08 g of silver is deposit-
ed on the electrodes. (Atomic number = 108 ; n=1)
What is the time elapsed in s?

48. A layer of silver of thickness 0.02 cm is to be deposit-

ed onto a metal which has a surface area of 50 cm2.
If a current of 3.5 A is used, for how long must cur-
rent be passed to achieve the desired thickness?
(Atomic number = 108 ; n = 1 ; d = 10.5 g/cm3)

Electric Current in Various Media 125