1

www.pilottrainingcenter.in

COVENTIONS AND FREEDOMS

1. ICAO CONVENTION WAS SIGNED IN CHICAGO IN 1944, DEC 7

2. As per this convention 5 freedoms of air were declared

 Technical Freedoms and Commercial Freedoms

1. First freedom : Right to overfly without landing

2. Second Freedom : Landing for non traffic purposes (technical purposes)
3. Third Freedom : Put down passengers from the home state of the carrier
4. Fourth Freedom : Take on passengers back to home state
5. Fifth Freedom : Take on passengers to third state

CONVENTIONS

1. TOKYO CONVENTION : Offence on board against penal law

(it is applicable to aircraft in the contracting state and the incident should be in
the contracting state)

2. ROME CONVENTION : Deals with damage caused by foreign aircraft to third

party on surface
3. WARSAW CONVENTION : Deals with responsibility for carriage of
passengers, baggage and cargo
4. MONTREAL CONVENTION : Deals with offences on board leading to damage
of property of aircraft ( UNLAWFUL VIOLENT ACT)
5. HAGUE CONVENTION : 1970,Hosted by Dutch government to address the
problems related to terrorist hijackings. The convention for the suppression
of unlawful Seizure of aircraft.
 2
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
LEASING

 AOC/ AOP – Air operators certificate Permit, by AAI

 Dry lease – Operated by the company leasing the a/c

 Wet lease – Operated by the company who let the aircraft out
 3
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

RULES OF THE AIR

ACROBATIC FLIGHTS

• Manoeuvres intentionally performed by an aircraft involving an abrupt

change in its attitude, an abnormal attitude or an abnormal variation in
speed

• No person shall fly acrobatically :-

a. In the vicinity of aerodrome at a distance less than 2nm unless being

flown higher than 1800m or 6000 feet
b. Populated area – Permission from DG

c. Completed at a height not less than 2000ft AGL, elsewhere

d. By a licensed pilot or accompanied by a licensed instructor

PROHIBITED AND RESTRICTED AREAS

• A/c shall not be flown into a prohibited area

• ‘A series of projectiles discharged at intervals of 10 seconds, showing on

bursting Red and Green lights’ – Indicates flying in a restricted, prohibited
or danger area.

• Actions to be taken

• 1- Do not fly further

• 2 – Do not descend

• 3 – Give distress signal

• 4 – Squawk 7700
 4
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
PROHIBITED AREAS IN INDIA

BARODA UNLIMITED
BOMBAY (TOWER OF SILENCE) 1mile UNLIMITED
MATHURA REFINERY 10km UNLIMITED
BHUBANESHAR TOWER 50,000ft
RASHTRAPATI BHAVAN UNLIMITED
KALPAKKAM, TN

Restricted area : An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or

territorial waters of a state, within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in
accordance with certain specified conditions

Prohibited Area : An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or

territorial waters of a state, within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in
accordance with certain specified conditions

Danger area : An airspace of defined dimensions within which activities dangerous

to the flight of aircraft may exist at specified times

Formation flights : No formations flights for civil aircrafts in India

AVOIDANCE OF COLLISION (RIGHT OF WAY)

1. Power driven flying machines give way to airships, balloons, gliders. (PAGB)
2. Airships must give way to balloons and gliders
3. Gliders must give way to balloons
4. Power driven flying machines should give way to towing aircrafts
 5
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
RIGHT OF WAY – means the right to proceed without alteration of course. The
aircraft that has the right of way is required to maintain its heading and speed
and observe the other aircraft whilst the collision risk exists.

Right of way

a. When two aircrafts are approaching head – on or approximately so and

there is danger of collision, each shall alter its heading to the right
b. Converging – When two aircrafts are converging at approximately the same
level, the aircraft that has the other on it’s right shall give way
c. Overtaking – an a/c that is being overtaken has the right of way and the
overtaking a/c, whether climbing, descending or in horizontal flight shall
keep out of the way by altering its heading to the right

An overtaking aircraft is an aircraft that approaches from the rear on a line

forming an angle of less than 70 deg

LANDING

An aircraft in flight, or operating on the ground or water, shall give way to aircraft
landing or in the final stages of an approach to land

SURFACE MOVEMENT OF AIRCRAFT

 Head on – Each shall stop and if practicable, alter its course to the right
 Converging course – The one which has the other on its right shall give way
 Overtaking – an a/c that is being overtaken has the right of way and the
overtaking a/c, shall keep well clear of the other a/c

LIGHTS TO BE DISPLAYED
 6
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
Lights must be displayed from 30 mins after sunset to 30mins before sunrise, for
all aircrafts in flight or on the movement area of an aerodrome

1. Anti – collision lights : Intended to attracts the attention of the other

aircraft
2. Navigation lights : Intended to attract the relative path of the aircraft to an
observer.

 All aircrafts operating on the movement area of an aerodrome whose

engines are running shall display lights which indicate that fact
 Angle of coverage : Parallel to the longitudinal axis to 70 deg either side
(white light)
 Parallel to the longitudinal axis to 110 deg (red and green)
 Anti – collision light is not required by law for a/c less than 5700kg AUW
 7
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
OLD PILOT’s saying

Green to green, all serene

Red to red, go ahead

Red to green, you must be seen

Green to red, you could end up dead

FAILURE OF LIGHTS

1. Navigation lights :- ATC is to be informed and the aircraft is to land and

have the light repaired before continuing the flight
2. Anti – collision lights :- Aircraft can continue flight and repair it before next
flight

FLIGHT PLAN RULE

Flight plan is required for :-

1. Flight more than 5nm from ARP or 3000 feet above AGL

2. Any aircraft requiring ATC services

3. International flights

 FPL to be submitted 60 mins prior to EOBT

 10 mins prior – for in flight plans
 Delay to take off within 30mins (controlled aerodrome) - new flight plan is
to filed or amended
 Delay to take off within 1 hour (uncontrolled aerodrome) - new flight plan
is to filed or amended

ADHERENSE TO FPL

A pilot should adhere to the current flight plan

 8
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
If a controlled flight deviates from the FPL, the following action is to be taken

 Deviation in track – Adjust the heading to come back on track

 Variation in 5% TAS/ 0.02 M – Inform ATC
 3mins +/- in ETA – Revised ETA should be passed to the ATX

Time – All times are in UTC (Universal co-ordinated time)

ATC clock should be within 30 seconds accuracy to the zulu clock

COMMUNICATION RULE

• A controlled flight is required to maintain two way RT communications with

the controlling air traffic unit

• Communication failure in VMC :-

a. Squawk 7600
b. Maintain visual watch of signals
c. Maintain VMC and land in the nearest airport

• Communication failure in IMC

a. In addition to squawking 7600,maintain the last assigned speed for 20 mins

b. Proceed in accordance to FPL

c. Descend if EAT given

d. Land within 30mins of ETA

ETA – For IFR flights, the time at which it is estimated that the aircraft will arrive
over that designated point, defined by reference of navigation aids, for VFR, the
time at which it is estimated that the aircraft will reach overhead that designated
aerodrome

EAT – The time at which ATC expects that an arriving aircraft, following a delay,
will leave the holding point to complete its approach for a landing
 9
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
FLIGHT RULES – IFR AND VFR

IMC – Instrument Meteorological Conditions : Meteorological conditions

expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling, less than the
minima specified for VMC

VMC – Visual Meteorological Conditions : Meteorological conditions expressed in

terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling, equal to or less than the
minima.

a. Visibility more than 5km below FL100, 8km above FL100

b. 1500m horizontal separation from the clouds
c. 1000ft Vertical separation from the clouds

Visibility

Day – The greatest distance at which a black object of suitable dimensions,

situated near the ground, can be seen and recognized when observed against a
bright background

Night – The greatest distance at which lights in the vicinity of 1000 candles can be
seen and identified against an unlit background
 10
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
Note : VFR flights cannot take off or land at an aerodrome in a CTR, or enter if

a. Cloud ceiling is less than 1500ft

b. The visibility is less than 5km

MINIMUM HEIGHTS

VFR flight shall not be flown

a. Over congested areas of cities, towns, settlements at a height less than

1000ft (300m) above the highest obstacle in a radius of 600m

b. Elsewhere at a height less than 500ft (150m) in a radius of 600m

IFR flight shall not be flown

a. Over congested areas of cities, towns, settlements at a height less than

2000ft (600m) above the highest obstacle in a radius of 8km

b. Elsewhere at a height less than 1000ft (300m) in a radius of 8km

If weather deteriorates below VMC

a. Request a clearance

b. Land at the nearest airport

c. Request SVFR

d. File and IFR plan

SPECIAL VFR (SVFR)

• Special VFR is defined as a clearance to fly within a CTR in conditions less

than VMC in which pilot remains clear of cloud and in visual with the
ground

• Ground Visibility should not be less than 1500m for a SVFR clearance
 11
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
• Provision of SVFR

a. Enter or land at a CTR

b. Depart from a CTR

c. Fly between CTRs

SEMI – CIRCULAR RULE (always magnetic tracks)

 0000 to 1790
a. IFR – ODD FLIGHT LEVELS
b. VFR – ODD + 500 FLIGHT LEVELS
 1800 to 3590
c. IFR – EVEN FLIGHT LEVELS
d. VFR – EVEN + 500 FLIGHT LEVELS
 12
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
Reduced Vertical Separation Minima(RVSM) and CVSM

 RVSM is the reduction of the standard vertical separation required between

aircraft flying between FL290 and FL410, from 2000ft to 1000ft
 Minimum separation above FL290 in RVSM is 1000ft
 Minimum separation above FL290 in RVSM for same track is 2000ft
 Minimum separation above FL290 in RVSM for opposite track is 1000ft

INTERCEPTION

 If you’re a/c is intercepted by another aircraft, follow the instructions of

intercepting a/c
 Once intercepted try communicating on 121.5mhz, 243mhz
 Abrupt 90 deg maneuver means you may proceed
 If communication is not possible on a common language use words in
simple like unable, cannot or descend
 If hijacked, squawk 7500 and start flying 500 feet above or below your
assigned altitude when below FL290 and 1000’ above FL290
 13
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
SIGNALS
 14
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
 15
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
 16
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
Marshalling Signals
 17
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
 18
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

ANNEX 7 – Aircraft Nationality and Registration Markings

• There are different standards for heavier than air and lighter than air
aircrafts

• Registration marking are by International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

and State of Registry

• Letters, numbers or combination of both

No 3 letter combinations used as Q codes or distress signals such as XXX, PAN and
TTT are used in a/c registrations

SOS = Distress
PAN = Urgency
XXX = Urgency
QUG = I am ditching
TTT = Safety (emergency communication alert now only used in maritime
operations)

Heavier than air Aircrafts

• Wings – 50cm

• Fuselage – 30cm

• Letters and number each separate group of equal height

Draw the diagram here
 19
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
Lighter than air Aircraft

• Other than unmanned free balloons, marking shall be at least 50cm

• Measurement will be mentioned by the state of registry

Example for a nationality or registration marking

VT-315

 VT is given by the common mark authority or the International

Telecommunication Union (ITU) of ICAO
 315 is given by the state of registry (DGCA)
 Registration is valid till the a/c is destroyed in an accident
 Registration marks shall not have any ornamentations

Certificate of registration – Is given by the Central Government

VT – Civil Aircrafts

VU – Defence aircrafts
 20
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

ANNEX 8 – AIRWORTHINESS OF AN AIRCRAFT

• C of A is issued by the State Of Registry

• Annex 8 – Engineering point of view

• Annex 6 – Operational and safety point of view

• Should not be lower than Annex 6, Part 1

• Aircraft standards should be equal to or above the minimum standards

Parts of annex 8
I – Definitions
II – Procedures for Certification and Continuing Airworthiness
III – Technical Requirements for design of large a/c
IV – Helicopters

• Owner or operator may apply for C of A

• Imported aircrafts will be examined again for a fresh C of A

• Suspension and Cancellation – can be done by DGCA

• Aircrafts cannot be flown without C of A

• Law regarding ferry – flights

Ferry flights are allowed if DGCA approves and finds that the aircraft is
capable of flying in the current condition
 21
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

ANNEX 1 – PERSONAL LICENSING

1. Private Pilot License
 Total – 40 hours
 20 hours PIC (5 hours X-CTY, 150nm)
 Age - Not less than 17

2. Commercial Pilot License (CPL)

 Min age - 18, Max – 65
 Medical, Less than 40 – 1year. More than 40 – 6 months
 Total – 200
 100 PIC (20 hrs X-CTY with a 300nm) + Night PIC (10 T/O and landings)
 10 hours of IR (5 on sim)

3. Commercial Pilot License (CPL) with IR

 Min age - 18, Max – 65
 Medical, Less than 40 – 1year. More than 40 – 6 months
 Total – 200
 100 PIC (50 hrs X-CTY with a 300nm) + Night PIC (10 T/O and landings)
 10 hours of IR (20 on sim)
 5 years valid

4. Airline Transport Pilot License (ATPL)

 Min age - 21, Max – 65
 Medical, Less than 40 – 1year. More than 40 – 6 months
 Total – 1500 hrs
 500 PIC (Not more than 100 as Co – Pilot ) + 200 X-CTY + 100 Night PIC or
Co - Pilot
 100 hours of IR (50 on sim)
 100 hours on Sim (Not more than 25 on basic sim)
 Co-Pilot – 50%
 Validity – 2 years
 22
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATION
Air Traffic Control Service – A service provided for the purpose of

a. Preventing collision
1. Between aircraft
2. On the maneuvering area between aircraft and obstructions
b. Expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of traffic

ATS

AERODROME FLIGHT INFORMATION

APPROACH CONTROL AREA CONTROL
CONTROL TOWER SERVICE/ALERTING
(CTR) (CTA/TMA)
(ATZ) SERVICE

For departure and

For T/O, landing, taxi For enroute
arrival

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL UNIT: A generic term meaning variously, area control
centre, approach control office

AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES AIRSPACES: Airspaces of defined dimensions, alphabetically

designated, within which specific types of flight may operate and for which air
traffic services and rules of operation are specified

ALERTING SERVICE: A service provided to notify appropriate organisations

regarding aircraft in need of search and rescue
 23
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
CONTROLLED AIRSPACE: Airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic
control service is provided to IFR flights and VFR flights in accordance with the
airspace classification

APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE: Air traffic control service for arriving or departing
controlled flights

CONTROL ZONE (CTR): A controlled airspace extending upwards from surface of

the earth to a specified upper limit

The lateral limit of CTR should extend at least 5nm from the ARP

CONTROL AREA (CTA/TMA): A controlled airspace extending upwards from a

specified limit above the earth

The lower limit of a CTA is not less than 200m (700ft) above MSL or the ground
(whichever is higher)

Draw the diagram below

 24
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
AIRSPACES

1. IFR – IFR
2. IFR – VFR
3. VFR – IFR
4. VFR – VFR

Remember +1, +4, +3, +1, +1 (Practical), +1 (Advisory), 0

FIS service is available from C to G inclusive

Speed limit below FL100 from class C airspace is 250KIAS

No speed limit above FL100

 25
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
ATS route designator

 A,B,G,R – Regional Network and non – RNAV (International)

 L, M, N, P – RNAV with Regional network routes (International)
 Q, T, Y, Z – RNAV not forming part of regional routes (Domestic)
 H,J,V,W – Not forming regional network or RNAV routes

W is domestic route in India

U – Upper airspace

S – Supersonic route

K – Low level routes

AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION SERVICE (ATIS)

 It is a voice broadcast of current weather within 5nm and 5000ft

 ATIS broadcast can be on discrete VHF frequency or on a voice channel of
VOR, but never on voice channel of ILS
 ATIS broadcast should not exceed 30 seconds when practical
 ATIS broadcast is updated upon receipt of any official weather regardless of
constant change from met department or immediately after a significant
weather change
 Preparation and dissemination of ATIS is the responsibility of ATS
 26
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

SEPARATION METHODS AND MINIMAS

• HORIZONTAL SEPERATION – By maintaining an interval between A/C

operating

• LATERAL SEPERATION – By maintaining A/c on different route or different

geographical locations

LATERAL SEPERATION USING NAV AIDS

• VOR : at least 15 degrees and at least a/c at a distance of 15NM (28km)

from the facility

• NDB : at least 30 degrees and at least a/c at a distance of 15NM (28km)

from the facility

• DEAD RECKONING : at least 45 degrees and at least a/c at a distance of

15NM (28km) from the facility

LONGITUDINAL SEPERATION

• SAME TRACK – The angular difference of which is less than 45 degrees or

more than 315 degree

• RECIPROCAL TRACK – The angular difference of which is more than 135

degree but less than 225 degree

• CROSSING TRACK - Intersecting tracks or portions thereof other than those

specified in the above two
 27
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
LONGITUDINAL SEPERATION BASED ON TIME

a. Same track

 15minutes
 10 minutes, if nav aid permits frequent determination of position and
speed
 5 minutes, if preceding aircraft’s TAS is 20kts (37km/h) or more
 3 minutes, if preceding aircraft’s TAS is 40kts (74 km/h) or more

b. Aircrafts of crossing tracks

 15 minutes
 10 minutes, if nav aid permits frequent determination of position and
speed

c. Aircraft climbing or descending same track

 15 minutes
 10 minutes, with nav aids
 5 minutes, provided that the level change is commenced within 10 minutes
of the time the second aircraft has reported over an exact reporting point

d. AIRCRAFTS ON RECIPROCAL TRACKS – Where lateral separation is not

provided, vertical separation of 10mins prior to and after the time the a/c
are estimated to pass, or are estimated to have passed
 28
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION USING DME

• Aircraft on the same track

a. 20nm (37km), provided each aircraft uses ‘on track’ DME

b. 10nm (19km), if the leading a/c’s TAS is 20kts or more

▪ Aircraft on the crossing tracks

a. 20nm (37km), provided that the relative angle between the tracks is less
than 90 deg

b. 10nm (19km), provided that the leading aircraft maintains a TAS of 20kts

▪ Aircraft climbing or descending on same track

a. 10nm

▪ Aircrafts on reciprocal tracks

a. At least 10nm apart, provided that it has been positively established that
the aircraft have passed each other

SEPERATION OF AIRCRAFT HOLDING IN FLIGHT – 5nm or 5 minutes flying time

from the holding area

TURBULENCE CATEGORY

Super heavy – More than 560000 kgs

Heavy – More than 136000 kgs

Medium – Between 7000 kgs and 136000 kgs

Light – Less than 7000 kgs

 29
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
SEPERATION BETWEEN DEPARTING TRAFFIC

Leading Aircraft Following Separation minima

aircraft

Heavy Medium or light a. Same runway 2 minutes

b. Parallel runway
Medium Light
(less than 760m)

Heavy Medium or light Departing from 3 minutes

a. An intermediate
Medium Light
part of runway

b. Intermediate part
of a parallel
runway

Note: 1 minute separation if aircraft are to fly on tracks diverging by at least 45

degrees immediately after T/O

SEPERATION BETWEEN ARRIVING AIRCRAFT

LEADING AIRCRAFT FOLLOWING AIRCRAFT SEPERATION MINIMA

HEAVY MEDIUM 2 MINUTES

HEAVY OR MEDIUM LIGHT 3 MINUTES

 When landing behind heavy jet, you should touchdown beyond his touch
down point
 30
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
 When taking off behind a heavy jet, rotate prior to his rotation point
 Light tailwind will bring the upwind vortex on the runway for max time
causing maximum hazard to incoming a/c
 Worst vortices are created in a/c clean configuration
 Vortices circulate outward, upward and inwards, clockwise for left wing
(rear view)
 ACW – Right wind (rear view)

RADAR SEPERATION MINIMA

 5 NM up to 60 NM and 6 NM separation to aircraft in approach and

departure phases of flight
 10 NMs beyond 60 NM

ESSENTIAL TRAFFIC – Is that controlled traffic to which the provision of separation

by ATC is applicable, but which, in relation to particular controlled flight is nor, or
will not be, separated from other controlled traffic by the appropriate separation
minima
 31
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION SERVICES

ANNEX – 15

Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) – A publication issued by or with the

authority of a state and containing aeronautical information of a lasting character
essential to air navigation. (Published by AAI)

An AIP can consist of 3 parts

Part 1 – General (GEN)

National differences, aerodrome charges, met services on route, location

identifiers

Part 2 – En –Route (ENR)

Danger areas, restricted areas, prohibited areas, navigation aid frequency,

approach procedure

Part 3 – Aerodrome Directory (AD)

Refueling services, met services at airport, watch hours

AIP Amendment – Permanent changes to the information contained in the AIP

AIP Supplement – Temporary changes to the information contained in the AIP.

There are two types of AIP supplements

1. Short duration – less than 3 months

2. Long duration – More than 3 months
 32
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
Aeronautical Information Circular (AIC) – A notice containing information that
does not qualify for the origination of a NOTAM or for inclusion in the AIP, but
which related to flight safety, air navigation, technical, administrative or
legislative matters.

Example: Examination dates by DGCA

Objective of AIS – The objective of AIS is to ensure the flow of information

necessary for the safety, regularity and efficiency of international air navigation

AIRAC (Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control)

Signifying a system aimed at advance notification, based on common effective

dates of circumstances that necessitate significant changes in operating practices.

Example: Change from NDB to a VOR at any station

Information concerning the circumstances shall be distributed under the

regulated system, basing establishment, withdrawal or significant changes on a
series of common effective dates at intervals of 28 days

The information shall be distributed by the AIS unit at least 42 days in advance of
the effective date and the information notified shall not be changed for at least
28 days after the effective date.

INFORMATION TO BE NOTIFIED BY AIRAC

The establishment, withdrawal of, and premeditated significant changes

(including operation trials) to:

Limits (Horizontal and vertical), regulations and procedures applicable to:

 33
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
a. Flight information regions
b. Control areas
c. Control Zones

Positions, frequencies, call signs, known irregularities and maintenance periods of

radio navigation aids and communication facilities.

Holding and approach procedures, arrival and departure procedures, noise

abatement procedures and any other pertinent ATC procedures.

NOTICES TO AIRMEN (NOTAM)

A NOTAM is a notice distributed by means of telecommunications containing

information concerning the establishment, condition or change in any
aeronautical facility, service, procedure or hazard, the timely knowledge of which
is essential to personnel concerned with flight operations.

 Originated from NOTAM offices in Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai.

Different types of NOTAMS

SERIES A: Contain information in respect of changes/ unserviceability likely to last

for more than 2 hours.

SERIES B: Contain information in respect of changes/ unserviceability likely to last

for less than 2 hours

SERIES C: Contain information about domestic flights

SERIES D: Contain information in respect to changes of aeronautical facilities in

respect of defense – controlled aerodromes only

SERIES G: Contain information of general lasting character affecting aircraft

operations in general. This series is operated by the international NOTAM office
Delhi and issued under DGCA
 34
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
SNOWTAM: Information concerning snow, ice and standing water on aerodrome
pavement areas

ASHTAM: Information concerning an operationally significant change in volcanic

activity, a volcanic eruption or volcanic ash cloud

FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICES (FIS)

A Flight Information Service (FIS) is to be provided to all aircrafts which are likely
to be affected by the information and which are

 Provided with air traffic control service

 Otherwise known to the relevant air traffic service

Note : When ATSUs provide both FIS and ATC service, the provision of ATC service
shall have precedence over the provision of FIS.

FIS includes provision of pertinent information likely to affect safety and

specifically concerning

 SIGMET and AIRMET

 Pre – eruption volcanic activity
 The release of radioactive or toxic chemicals into the atmosphere
 Changes in serviceability of navigation aids
 Aerodrome movement areas when they are affected by snow, ice or
significant depth of water
 Un – manned free balloons
 35
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
ALERTING SERVICE

It is a requirement for all contracting states of ICAO to provide SAR facilities for all
aircrafts flying in the airspace of that state. In order to alert the SAR, states are
required to have a formal system

HOW DOES ATC KNOW THAT THERE IS AN EMERGENCY

Uncertainty phase (INCERFA)

Except when no doubt exits as to the safety of the aircraft and its occupants, the
uncertainty phase is declared when

 No communication has been received from an aircraft within a periods of

thirty minutes after the time a communication should have been received,
or thirty minutes from an unsuccessful attempt to establish communication
with the aircraft was first made, whichever is earlier
 An aircraft fail to arrive within 30 minutes of the estimated time of arrival
last notified to

Alert Phase (ALERFA)

When apprehension exists as to the safety of the aircraft and its occupants, the
alert phase is declared when

 Following uncertainty phase, subsequent attempts to establish

communication with the aircraft have failed to reveal the news of the
aircraft
 Aircraft has been cleared to land and fails to land within 5 minutes of the
estimated landing time
 An aircraft is known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference
 36
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

Distress Phase (DISRESFA)

When there is reasonable certainty that the aircraft and its occupants are
threatened by grave and imminent danger and do require immediate assistance,
the distress phase is declared when

 Following the alert phase further unsuccessful attempts to establish

communication with the aircraft
 The fuel on board is considered to be exhausted
 Information received which indicates that the operating efficiency of the
aircraft has been impaired to the extent that a forced landing is likely
 37
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

PROCEDURES FOR AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES – PAN

OPS

DOC 8168 – PAN - OPS

DOC 4444 – PAN-ATM

Volume 1 – Flight procedures describing operational procedures recommended for the guidance of flight
operations personnel and flight crew

Volume 2 – Construction of Visual and Instrument Flight Procedure

 Obstacle clearance is the primary safety consideration in the development of instrument flight
procedures
 PAN – OPS assume that all engines are operational
 MOC – Minimum obstacle clearance

AREAS

Primary area – ½ of total width

Secondary area – ¼ of the total width

INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE PROCEDURES

 Departure routes – SID routes

 Omni – directional departures
 When a straight in departure is not possible , turning departures route is constructed – 15
degree or more turn
 In turn initiation area, OBC is 90m (295ft) is provided
 OBC is zero at departure end of the runway (DER)

SID – Standard Instrument Departures

 SID terminates at the first fix/ facility/ way point of the en route phase following a departure
procedure
 STRAIGHT DEPARTURES – One in which the initial departure track is within 15 degree of the
alignment of the runway centre line
 TURNING DEPARTURES – Departure routes requiring a turn more than 15 degree
 Height of at least 120m (394ft) or 90m (275ft) for helicopters
 38
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
 Procedures are normally designed for turns at a point 600m from the beginning of runway

OMNI – DIRECTIONAL DEPARTURES

 Normally allows departures in all directions

Restrictions are expressed as

a. Sectors to be avoided or
b. Sectors having minimum gradients or minimum altitudes

FIX TOLERANCE

a. TAR within 37km (20NM), tolerance is +-1.5km (0.8NM)

b. RSR within 74km (40 NM), tolerance is +-3.1km (1.7NM)

FIX TOLERANCE OH A STATION

a. VOR is +-5degree
b. NDB is +-5 degree

TYPES OF APPROACHES

Straight in approach

 An approach which is aligned to the runway centre line

 In case of non – precision approach, the angle between final approach track and runway centre
line should be less than 30 degree

Circling Approach

 A visual flight manoeuvre keeping runway in sight for landing

 You can descend below MDA only when you are in visual contact with the ground and runway
lights
 If visual reference is lost,
a. Initiate a climb towards the landing runway
b. Initiate a published missed approach
c. Minima of instrument
d. Approach is decided by the state of AD

IAF, IF, FAP and MAP

IAF – Initial approach fix, provides at least 984ft (300m) obstacle clearance

IF – Intermediate fix, clearance reduces to 492ft (150m)

 39
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
FAP – Final approach point (Align or descend – 6.5% gradient

Non precision approach – Approach with only lateral guidance. MDA (Minimum descent altitude) - MAP

Precision approach – Approach with both lateral and vertical guidance. DA (H) (Decision altitude) – MAP

MAP – Missed Approach procedures

Initial

Intermediate – 30m MOC

Final – 50m MOC

 GLIDE SLOPE MUST BE INTERCEPTED BETWEEN 3NM and 10NM, 300m to 900m

Draw approach segments below

 40
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

HOLDING PATTERN

Parallel – P – 110 degree

Teardrop/ Offset – T – 70 degree

Direct – D – 180 degree

 Entry into the holding pattern is heading based

 All turns in a holding pattern are 30 / sec
 Standard holds – Right turns
 Non – standard – Left turns
 Below 14,000’ – 1 minutes, above 14,000’ – 1.5 minutes
 Zone of flexibility is 5o either side

Important Terminologies and meanings

ETA – Estimated time of arrival

EAT – Estimated Approach Time

 41
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
DER – Departure end of Runway

OCA – Obstacle Clearance Altitude

MEHT – Minimum Eye Height

OIS – Obstacle Identification Surface

MSA – Minimum sector/safe altitude (25NM)

ACAS – Airborne Collision Avoidance System (promotes situational awareness and keeps searching for
conflicting traffic)

Transition Level, layer and altitude

 The altitude above which 1013 is set and the vertical position of an aircraft is reported as flight
level is called the TRANSITION ALTITUDE
 The layer between transition altitude and transition level is known as transition layer
 Transition from altitude to flight level and vice versa is done, at transition altitude during climb
and transition level during descent.
 42
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

ANNEXURE – 14
AERODROMES
The place on the surface of the Earth where aeroplanes (aircraft) take off and land is known as an
aerodrome. Aerodromes may be nothing more than a field used for light private flying, a defined strip of
open water (a water aerodrome) or the complex and fascinating areas of real estate.

Aerodrome elevation – The elevation of the highest point in the airport

Aerodrome Reference Point (ARP) – The geographical location of the aerodrome and the reference
centre of its traffic zone

Apron - The apron is a legally defined portion of the aerodrome where passengers, mail and cargo are
loaded on to an aeroplane.

Movement Area - This is defined as: that part of an aerodrome intended for the surface movement of
aircraft including the maneuvering area, aprons and any part of the aerodrome provided for the
maintenance of aircraft. Effectively, this is all the ‘real estate’ of the aerodrome.
It may include grass areas where these are specified for aircraft use, but clearly does not include
buildings and other constructed facilities

Maneuvering Area - This is defined as: that part of an aerodrome provided for the takeoff and landing of
aircraft and for the movement of aircraft on the surface, excluding the apron and any part of the
aerodrome used for the maintenance of aircraft. The maneuvering area will include runways (grass and
paved), the taxiways (grass and paved) and any defined stop way or pre take off areas before the
threshold of a runway.

Clearway – An area at the end of the take – off run available and under the control of the aerodrome
licensee, selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an aircraft may make a portion of its initial
climb to a specified height (35ft)

STOPWAY – A defined rectangular area at the end of the take – off run available, prepared and
designated as suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of discontinued take – off
 43
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

DECLARED DISTANCES

Take – off run available (TORA)

Take – off distance available (TODA)
Accelerated – stop distance available (ASDA)
Landing distance available (LDA)

AERODROME REFERENCE CODE

Use - The reference code, which is used for aerodrome planning and construction purposes, is a simple
method of inter-relating the specifications concerning the characteristics of aerodromes, so as to
provide aerodrome facilities that are suitable for the aeroplanes that are intended to operate at the
aerodrome.

Elements - The code is composed of two elements which are related to aeroplane performance
characteristics and dimensions. Element 1 is a number based on the aeroplane reference field length
and element 2 is a letter based on the aeroplane wing span and the outer main gear wheel span (the
distance between the outside wheels of the undercarriage).
 44
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

Pavement strengths - Where paved areas (runways, taxiways, aprons) are used by aircraft with
maximum take off mass greater than 5,700 kg, the strength of the pavement is reported by the aircraft
classification number - pavement classification number (ACN-PCN) system. An aircraft can safely use a
paved area if the PCN is equal to or greater than the ACN.
PCN - The Pavement Classification Number (PCN) is used to indicate the strength of a runway, taxiway or
apron. It is of primary importance for the apron as this is where the aircraft mass will be greatest. PCN is
only used for paved areas.
ACN - The Aircraft Classification Number (ACN) is a single unique number expressing the relative effect
of an aircraft on a paved area relating to pavement type and thickness. It is a number on a continuous
scale increasing from 0 with no upper limit. Each aircraft has an ACN.

 Pavement type for ACN – PCN determination

Rigid Pavement – R
Flexible Pavement - F
 Sub grade strength category

High Strength – A
Medium Strength – B
Low Strength – C
Ultra Low Strength – D

 Maximum allowance tire pressure value

High – W
Medium – X
Low – Y
Very Low – Z

 Evaluation method
Technical Evaluation method – T
Using Aircraft Experience – U

Example: PCN 80/R/B/W/T

RUNWAYS

 Wind is the most important meteorological consideration and runway direction must be based
towards the prevailing wind.
 It is a requirement of ICAO that runway must be usable for not less than 95% of the notified
hours of operation called as USABILITY FACTOR

TYPES OF RUNWAYS

Non – Instrumental (Visual Runways)

The take – off and landing criteria are determined visually with reference to ground visibility, RVR cloud
ceiling, and day/night conditions
 45
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

Instrument Runway

A runway to which instrument arrival and departure procedures are applied

 Precision Runways
 Non – Precision Runways

LENGTH AND WIDTH OF RUNWAYS

 Length - Should be adequate to meet the operational requirements of the aeroplanes for which
the runway is intended.
 Width – Should not be less than the value given in the table

RUNWAY MARKINGS

Runway Designator Markings – Consists of 2 digit numbers. On parallel runways, they shall be
supplemented with a letter

 Two parallel runways ‘L’ and ‘R’

 Three parallel runways ‘L’,’C’ and ‘R’
 Four parallel runways ‘L’, ‘R’, ‘L’, ‘R’
 46
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

RUNWAY CENTERLINE MARKING

 They shall be provided on a paved runway.
 Shall be located along the centre line of the runway
 Consist of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. The length of the stripe plus a gap shall not be less
than 50m or more than 75m, the length of each stripe shall be at least equal to the gap or 30m,
whichever is greater

TOUCH – DOWN ZONE MARKINGS

 Consists of pairs of rectangular markings symmetrically placed about the runway centre line
with number of pairs related to the landing distance available. These are 150m placed
longitudinally.
TOUCH – DOWN ZONE MARK Runway Length
(Pair) Available
1 Less than 900m
2 900m - <1200m
3 1200m - <1500m
4 1500m - <24000
6 >2400m

THRESHOLD MARKINGS

 Is to be provided at the thresholds of paved instrument runways and of paved, not instrument
runways
 Consists of longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the centre
line of the runway
Number of threshold stripes Runway width
 47
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
4 18m
6 23m
8 30m
12 45m
16 60m

TAXIWAY MARKINGS

 Taxiway markings and aircraft stand markings are yellow

 Taxiway centerline marking shall be provided on a paved runway when the runway is part of a
standard taxi – route and
a. There is no runway centre line marking or
b. Where the taxiway centre – line is not coincident with the runway centre line

RUNWAY HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS

 Indicated by the mandatory signs at the side of taxiway

AERODROME SIGNS

MANDATORY SIGNS INFORMATION SIGNS

 48
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

AERODROME LIGHTINGS
AERODROME BEACON

 Flashing white and green for civilian land airports

 Flashing white and yellow for a water airport
 Flashing white, yellow and green for a heliport
 Two quick, white flashes followed by a green light for a military airport

An aerodrome beacon is usually situated on top of the control tower or at an elevated position
elsewhere on the aerodrome.

APPROACH LIGHTING SYSTEMS

 To enhance the ability of a pilot to visually acquire the runway at night or in low visibility
 It is an essential part of an instrument approach system’

1. SIMPLE APPRAOCH LIGHTING SYSTEM

2. PRECISION APPROACH CAT I LIGHTING SYSTEM
3. PRECISION APPROACH CAT I and II LIGHTING SYSTEM

a. SIMPLE APPRAOCH LIGHTING SYSTEM

 The system consists of a single light source centre line extending from the threshold of the
runway along the approach path for 420m
 A single crossbar min 18m wide and max 30m wide is placed at a point 300m from the threshold
 These lights are fixed, variable intensity lights
 49
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
 The centre line may be made up of barrettes not more than 3m wide

BARRETTE : A barrette consists of a line of 4 or 5 closely spaced lights forming a small bar

b. PRECISION APPROACH CAT I LIGHTING SYSTEM

 A precision approach category I lighting system consists of a row of lights on the extended
centre line of the runway extending, wherever possible, over a distance of 900m from the
runway threshold with a row of lights forming a crossbar 30m in length at a distance of 300m
from the runway threshold

 Each cross bar is placed at 150m spacing

 Gaps between the lights forming the cross bar should not be more than 6m.
 Lights forming centre line at intervals of 30m

c. PRECISION APPROACH CAT II/III LIGHTING SYSTEM

 Both systems should be 900m long

 Centre line is replaced with barrettes and adding red wing barrettes to both systems.
 The spacing between the crossbars is 150m
 The lights forming centre line at intervals of 30m
 A side row shall consist of barrettes showing red.
 The length of a side row barrette and the spacing of its lights shall be equal to those of
touchdown zone barrettes

RUNWAY TOUCHDOWN ZONE LIGHTS

 Shall be provided in the touchdown zone of a precision approach runway category I or II

 The longitudinal separation between pairs of barrettes shall be either 30m or 60m.
 50
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
 A barrette shall be composed of at least 3 lights with a spacing between the lights of not more
than 1.5m
 The lateral spacing between the innermost lights of the side row shall not be less than 18m or
22.5m

RUNWAY LIGHTS

RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS

 They are fixed white , variable in intensity and unidirectional

 60 m gap for instrumental runway and 100m gap for a non – instrumental runway
 The last 600m or 1/3 of the runway length, the edge lights are possibly yellow

THRESHOLD LIGHTS

 Fixed green, variable intensity, unidirectional facing up.

RUNWAY END LIGHTS

 Unidirectional, red.
 If a stop way is created at the end of the runway, all four side of the stop way will be red

RUNWAY CENTRELINE LIGHTS

 Fixed white, unidirectional lights.

 51
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
 Shall also be fixed white from the threshold to the point 900m from the runway end, alternate
red and white from 900m to 300m and red from 300m to the runway end.

TAXIWAY LIGHTING

EDGE LIGHTS

 Fixed blue, showing all around

CENTRE LINE

 Fixed green, visible only for the aircrafts in the vicinity of the taxiway
 EXIT TAXIWAY – Alternate green and yellow from the beginning near the runway centre line and
thereafter all lights shall show green.

APAPI (Abbreviated PAPI)

 Two white – Above the glide path

 One white and one red – On the glide path
 Two Red – Below the glide path

PAPI

 Gives pilot a visual indication of the vertical deviation from the nominal glide path
 Four red – Way below the GP
 One white, three red – below the GP
 Two white, two red – On the GP
 One red, three white – Above the GP
 Four white – Way above the GP

Notes

 For obstacles above 150m within the radius of 15km from the ARP are lit by high intensity
flashing white by day and low intensity steady red by night
 Runway guard lights are flashing yellow
 Vehicles have orange or preferably yellow beacon at aerodromes
 The aerodrome category for search and rescue and fire fighting is based on the over – all length
of the longest aeroplane using the aerodrome and its maximum fuselage width
 If an aeroplane subjected to unlawful interference is at an aerodrome the parking bay which it
should be parked will be 100m apart from the other parking bays
 Emergency vehicles in the aerodrome are painted a single conspicuous color, preferably yellow
red or yellowish green
 The apron safety line markings are a contrasting color from the taxiway markings
 52
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

NATIONAL LAWS
THE AIRCRAFT ACT 1934 AND AIRCRAFT RULES 1937

This act was passed by the Indian Legislators and received the assent of governor general on
19th August 1934, therefore known as the aircraft act 1934

It extends to whole of India and applies to

a. To the citizen of India where ever they may be

b. To the person on, aircraft registered in India wherever they maybe

The act of 1934 and the rules framed in 1937 were brought out in a book which was known as
the aircraft manual

This manual is published every fourth year by the office of DGCA

The name of this book have been changed to AIRCRAFT MANUAL

The ACT 1934

 Prohibition of slaughtering of animals and depositing rubbish within a radius of 10km

from the ARP
 Power to detain any a/c by central government
 Power to prohibit the construction of buildings and planting of trees within 20km of ARP
 Penalty for flying so as to cause danger – 2 years or 10 L penalty or both
 Removal of damages a/c
a. An a/c wrecked on water or land may be removed under the supervision of
officer of police of police or magistrate or CAD
 Landing, parking and housing charges are based on the total all up weight of an aircraft,
contained in C of A

THE AIRCRAFT RULES 1937

1. CLASS RATING – Single engine land, single engine sea, multi engine land, multi engine
sea
2. PETROLEUM IN BULK – Petrol contained in amount of exceeding 900 l in capacity
3. TYPE RATING – Rating on each aircraft whenever considered necessary by the authority
 53
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
4. STATE AIRCRAFT – Include military aircraft and a/c employed for government services,
police, customs etc
5. MILITARY AIRCRAFT – AIRFORCE MILITARY AND NAVAL AIRCRAFTS

AIRCRAFT PUBLIC HEALTH RULES 1954

 The commander of the a/c must inform the health officer in India at least 2 hours in
advance on R/T of any person suffering from quarantinable diseases.

INCUBATION PERIOD

CHOLERA – 5 DAYS

PLAGUE – 6 DAYS

YELLOW FEVER – 6 DAYS

RELAPSING FEVER – 8 DAYS

SMALL POX – 14 DAYS

TYPHUS – 14 DAYS

 Carriage of dead bodies and cremated remains of dead body or human remains of those
who died because of the following cannot be brought to India
a. Plague
b. Anthrax
c. Yellow fever
d. Glanders

 Cremated ashes can be brought to India if it is placed in an urn or casket having a proper
outer packing
 Uncremated remains can be brought if it is sealed in a sealed contained

AIR DEFENCE CLEARANCE (ADC)

 To be obtained if the flight is outside the radius of 5NM and 1000ft from the ARP
 Valid for the entire route
 More than 30mins delay, new ADC to be obtained
 54
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
CARRIAGE OF CABIN CREW

10 – 49 1

50 – 99 2

100 – 149 3

150 – 199 4

200 – 249 5

250 – 299 6

CARRIAGE OF ARMS AND EXPLOSIVES

 Only with written permission with the central government

CARRIAGE OF MAILS

 Only with the permission DGPT

CARRIAGE OF PRISONERS

 With the permission of DGCA, DDG, DRI, CAD

CARRIAGE OF PERSON SUFFERING FROM MENTAL DISORDERS

 Only when accompanied by a medical practioner

PHOTOGRAPHY – Only with the permission from DGCA

OPERATIONAL MANUAL IS PREPARED BY THE OPERATOR AND APPROVED BY DGCA

FLIGHT MANUAL – MANUFACTURER

REFUELLING

Building – 15m

Person – 15m

Smoking – 30m

NOTES

 Maximum speed for civil aircraft is .92 MAC

 55
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
 CVR – Records 30mins/2 hours of crew conversation
 FDR – Records flight data for 25 hours located at the back side of the a/c
 Smoking is permitted or prohibited (written in C of A)
 Crew log books should be preserved for 5 years from the date of last entry
 Dropping of paper leaves or flowers is done with the permission of local district
magistrate.

DOCUMENTS TO BE CARRIED ON BOARDS

 Certificate of registration
 C of A
 Crew flight license
 Radio license
 Crew manifest
 Passenger list
 Cargo manifest
 Logbook of aircraft
 Emergency checklist
 Operations manual
 Medical License

COLOR IDENTIFICATION OF DROPPABLE CONTAINERS

RED –

BLUE –

YELLOW –

BLACK –

Ground Visual Aids

V–

X–

SOS –

Oxygen Requirements

1. Required for all when flying above 13000 ft all the time
 56
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
2. From 10,000 – 13,000 ft
After 30mins, Oxygen is required for all the crew members and 10% of passengers

FUEL REQUIREMENTS

PISTON PROP AIRCRAFT TURBOJET AIRCRAFT (TURBINE ENGINE)

When alternate aerodrome is required (IFR
flight)
 Fuel to dstn + Fuel to altn + 45min of
holding fuel
When alternate aerodrome is not required
(VFR)
 Fuel to dest + 45 min of holding fuel
When alternate is not available
 Fuel to dest + 45 min of fuel and 15%
trip fuel
 Or 2 hours of fuel at normal
consumption
When alternate aerodrome is required (IFR
flight)
 Fuel to dstn + Fuel to altn + 30 min of
holding fuel over alternate aerodrome
at 1500ft
When alternate aerodrome is not required
(VFR)
 Fuel to dstn + 30 min of holding fuel at
1500ft AGL
When alternate is not available
 Fuel to dest + 2 hours of fuel at normal
consumption

AIRCRAFTS ACCIDENTS AND INCIDENTS

 57
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

ANNEX – 13
 Accident investigation will be carried out by the state in which the accident took place
 Any other state can participate in the investigation on request, if they provide facilities or
experts
 Accident preliminary report shall be submitted to appropriate states and ICAO
 The name of representative should be mentioned if the aircraft has a maximum mass of over
100000 kg
 Accident – An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place
between the time any persons boards the aircraft with the intention of flight until such till all
such persons have disembarked, in which
a. A person is fatally or seriously injured
b. The aircraft sustains damage or structural failure
 Serious incident – An incident involving circumstances indicating that the accident nearly
occurred
 Incident – The aircraft suffers damage or a person suffers injury on either ground or in flight in
circumstances other than those specified as an accident
 Air – traffic accidents :- AIRPROX
 58
www.pilottrainingcenter.in

HUMAN FACTORS
HYPOXIA

Is a state of Oxygen deficiency in the body sufficient to impair function of the

brain and other organs.

 ANAEMIC HYPOXIA

This is caused by the inability of the blood to carry oxygen and may be due to a
medical condition or carbon monoxide poisoning

 HYPOXIC HYPOXIA

This is caused by the shortage of Oxygen in the blood which can result from a lot
of conditions. As far as a pilot is concerned, the main reason is altitude

PREVENTION OF HYPOXIA

 It is encouraged for pilots to use supplementary oxygen above 10,000’

during day and 5000’ by night

DALTON’S LAW

 Total pressure is equal to the sum of partial pressure of gasses

 Chemical composition – 78% N2, 21% O2, .9% Argon, 0.03 CO2, rest rare
gasses

Other Points

 Oxygen combined with HB in blood is transported by RBC (Red Blood Cells)

 Percentage of O2 is same at all levels
 Barometric pressure at 18,000ft is half
 Breathing 100% O2 at high altitude is equivalent to breathing ambient air at
10,000

HYPERVENTILATION
 59
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
 It is another word for over breathing, lungs ventilation in excess of body
needs (lack of CO2 in the body)
 Causes of hyperventilation
 Anxiety
 Shock
 OD
 G Forces
 Motion sickness
 Symptoms of Hyperventilation
 Dizziness
 Jingling
 Spasms
 Increased heart rate
 Loss of consciousness

TREATMENT OF HYPERVENTILATION

The classic way to treat a patient suffering from Hyperventilation is to make

him/her breath into a paper bag.

HYPOXIA OR HYPERVENTILATION

The natural reaction to a shortage of oxygen is for body to try to obtain more air
by breathing faster and deeper. The hypoxic individual may hyperventilate in an
effort to get more oxygen, but this is of little valve when in an environment of low
ambient pressure.

In night can be difficult to distinguish the symptoms of Hypoxia and

hyperventilation. The appropriate response of pilots must be to assume the
worst.

 CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING

CO poisoning is likely to occur in aeroplanes where cabin heat is supplied from the
exhaust coating. HB has more affinity towards CO
 60
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
Symptoms of CO poisoning

1. Headache
2. Dizziness
3. Nausea
4. Impaired vision

ACTION TO BE TAKEN

1. Switch off cabin heat

2. Open cabin ventilation
3. Use fresh air
4. Use O2 if available

CABIN DECOMPRESSION

 Decompression sickness
 Caused by rapid decompression at or above 18,000ft
 Henry explained the release of N2 gas bubbles in the body fluids causing
bends, chocks(Pulmonary arterial blockage), creeps
 Passengers before decompression should wait for 12 hours before next
flight
 After scuba diving pilot may develop symptoms of decompression when the
altitude is less than 18,000ft
 Flying immediately after scuba diving is prohibited. (since it involves risk of
decompression sickness)
 Do not fly within 12 hours of swimming using compressed air and avoid
flying for 24 hours if the depth of 30 feet was exceeded

TIME OF USEFUL CONSIOUSNESS

 This is the time up to which pilot can act physically and mentally well, after
TUC both mental and physical performance degrade
 TUC varies individually and depends on cabin pressure
 61
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
ALTITUDE TUC
18000ft 30min
22000ft 5-10 min
25000ft 3-5 min
30000ft 1-2 min
35000ft 30-60 sec (30 – 90 sec)
40000ft 12 sec ( 5 – 15 sec)
 62
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
EYE

 Light enters the eye through the cornea

 Light adaptation. When experiencing sudden high levels of illumination the
eye quickly adjusts in 10 seconds
 The most common factors affecting night vision are
a. Age
b. Mild Hypoxia
c. Altitude
d. Smoking
 Eye has two kinds of cells
1. Rod cells – For night vision
2. Con cells – For day vision
 It takes time for our eyes to adapt to darkness. This adaptation takes about
7 minutes for cones and 30 minutes for the rods

VISUAL DEFECTS

a. Hypermetropia

This is long sightedness, a shorter than normal eyeball or image being formed
behind the retina causes this.

b. Myopia

In short sightedness, the problem is that the eyeball is longer than normal and
image forms in front of the retina

c. Cataract

Cataracts are nominally associated with the ageing process. With time, the
lens can become cloudy causing a marked loss of vision.

d. Glaucoma

This disease causes a pressure rise of the liquid around the eye
 63
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
e. Color blindness

Total color blindness is a bar of the issue of flying license. It is caused by the
defect in structure of cone cells.

f. Presbyopia

Far sightedness linked with age

 Deficiency of Vitamin A causes night blindness

 An area in which cone cells pre dominate is called fovea
 The amount of light entering the retina is controlled by pupil
 Night vision scanning – look from side to side of an object
 Natural focus point of eye is between 1m – 1.5m
 64
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
EAR
1. INNER EAR

Consists of semi – circular canal, otoliths and cochlea

Cochlea is responsible for perception of noise

2. MIDDLE EAR

Consists of tiny bones, ear ossicles

 Vestibular Apparatus (Otoliths + Semicircular canals) hels in maintaining

spatial orientation
 Otolith senses linear acceleration
 Semicircular canal senses angular acceleration
 Intensity of sound is measured in decibles
 Prolonged exposure to noise in excess of 90 decibles can end up in noise
induced hearing loss
 Human hearing range – 16 Hz to 20 Khz
 Barotrauma - Is likely to cause pain caused by difference in pressure
existing between the middle ear and the ambient air

ILLUSIONS

 Vertigo

An illusion associated with the vestibular apparatus in vertigo, a loss of spatial

awareness, in which individual experiences a rotating, tumbling or turning
sensation.

 Coriollis Effect

If a steady turn is being maintained then a sudden movement of the head will be
detected as change in rate of turn

 Somatogravic Illusion
 65
www.pilottrainingcenter.in
The illusion of pitching up or down as a result of the movement of the Otoliths
due to linear acceleration.

 Autokinetic Illusion

If a stationary light is stared for a several seconds, it appears to move

 Narrow Runway

Pilot may feel he is at a greater height than actual and tendency to land short
(undershoot)

 Wide Runway

Pilot may feel he is lower than actual and has a tendency to overshoot the runway

 Downslope

He may feel he is lower than actual, this illusion may cause him to land ahead

 Upslope

He may feel he is higher than actual, this illusion may cause him to land short

NOTE

If IMC – Believe your instruments

If VMC – Look out at the horizon