Dambi Dollo University

College of Natural and Computational Science

Department of Physics
Bsc Physics Program Graduate Laboratory
(Phys 3101) Manual

Prepared By:

Habtamu Fekadu Etefa (PhD)

Febroury, 2022

Dambi Dollo, Ethiopia

 Content page

 General guidelines on Report Writings

 Instructions

 How to write report

 Uncertainty in measurements

 Refractive Index Of Prism Using A Spectrometer

 Determination of Wavelength of Laser Light Using Transmission Grating

  Determination of Wavelength of Laser Light Using Reflection Grating

 Determination of the Width of Single Slit using Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern

 Determination of the Diameter of a Pin Hole Using Fresnel Diffraction

 Elliptically and Circularly Polarization of Light

 Michelson Interferometer

 References

General guidelines on Report Writings

 Instructions

Before and during the regular laboratory session students are required to read and understand all

sections (objectives, theory etc.) of an experiment. All observations and data should be neatly

recorded in a suitable tabular form previously arranged for the particular experiment. The

columns should be labeled clearly and the units in which the quantities are measured should be

denoted. Instruments should be read to the limit of their possibilities by estimating the last figure

of the reading, i.e., the fraction of the smallest scale division. In making calculations, it is better
to include the mathematical equations to indicate the operations performed and to show clearly

how the results have been obtained. It is expected that every student exercises the greatest care

while using the laboratory apparatus. In the case where computer is required they have to clearly

understand what is required and discuss they observed.

 How to write a report

Writing a lab report is the only way your instructors will know what you have done during the

lab and how well you have understood the process and the results. Part of your lab experience

should be learning how to organize and present your work in a scientific way. There is no

framework that can be used as a”one size fits all”, therefore this sample lab report should only be

used as an example. Any lab report should have the following features:

 It should be concise but should also contain the necessary details and well

developed explanations.

 It should be organized. You should enable the reader to quickly find the information

he or she may be interested in.

 It should contain all the relevant information and reasoning. You should enable the

reader to validate your conclusion.

The report for each experiment should be started on a page and should normally consist

of the following parts:

 Title, name, and date (cover page)

 Title:-a precise and brief heading given to any experiment.
 Introduction: -contains the objectives of the experiment and some background
information on the experiment.
 Theory: -relates the conceptual principles with the actual practice. It helps the student
understand the underlying principles of the experiment and approximations if there exist.
 Apparatus: -contains list of devices used to conduct the experiment.
  Procedure: -contains the major steps followed in carrying out the experiment
sequentially.
 Data:-is a record of readings from instruments during experiments. Data can be
arranged in a table form for a simplified analysis.
 Data analysis: -in this section results of experiments will be explained using algebraic
relations specified in the theory and/or supported by graphical descriptions. and error
analysis: -it contains calculations of the observed data and the corresponding errors.
during analysis possible sources of errors must be explained.
 Results and discussion: -it contains the results of the experiment expressed in terms of
numbers, tables, figures, graphs, etc. obtained from the experiment are presented.
 Conclusions: -in this section the writer highlights the important results of
the experiment.
 Solutions and answers -it contains the solutions (showing all the necessary steps)
or/and answers to the questions given at the end of each experiment.
 Uncertainty in measurements
Due to human and instrumental limitations no measurement is absolutely accurate or exact. A
measurement or experimental result is of little value if nothing is known about its precision.
We must know something about probable errors and uncertainties if we are concerned about
the reliability of results of measurements. The possible errors enter into measured quantities
are:
 error in calibration of instruments,
 errors inherent in reading the scale,
 errors inherent in the sensitivity of the indicator changes, and
 errors due to the fluctuations in the environment which affect the experiment
 reading of some instruments may fluctuate due to temperature variations, and
needs checked at periodic intervals.
NB: Most of the aforementioned errors are now days circumvented due to digitalization
of laboratory instruments.
The accuracy of a measurement, therefore, depends upon a number of factors, many of which
cannot be easily determined. It will be assumed in these experiments that the apparatus is
sufficiently accurate so that instrumental errors are negligible and that systematic errors,
personal errors and personal bias are eliminated. Under these conditions all variations in the
readings are due to accidental errors. In this case, experience tells us that the arithmetic mean of
a number of observations will give us the most probable result. But this is still not the true value
of the quantity that is being measured, since the true value is seldom known. Hence, it is
important to know how reliable the result is, to a certain set limit within which the true values
most probably lie. It is known from the theory of probability that:

The arithmetic mean of a number of observations (readings), whose values are de-
noted by xi with i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n, is given by

The arithmetic mean will approach the true value as the number of observations
increases.
 One way of increasing the accuracy of measurements is to take a large number of
observations. There are several ways of expressing the measure of reliability of
the arithmetic mean. These are
 the average deviation from the mean (a.d.),
 the average deviation of the mean (A.D.), and
 the percentage deviation of the mean (%A.D.)
When the mean (average) of a number of observations is taken, the departures of the (0.3.1)
individual values from the mean are called deviation (∆xi). That is,

The average deviation from the mean (a.d.) is the average of all deviations, regardless
to the sign. It is given by
=
The average deviation of the mean (A.D.) is equal to the average deviation from the
mean (a.d.) divided by the square root of the number of observations. That is,
 =

Example:
Consider the following seven measurements of length.

Readings, xi(cm) Deviation, (cm) (cm)

5.65 -0.025714 0.025714
5.61 0.014286 0.014286
5.63 -0.005714 0.005714
5.62 0.004286 0.004286
5.64 -0.15714 0.15714
5.62 0.004286 0.004286
5.60 0.024286 0.024286

==5.62428571cm

And =cm=0.01273cm
The significance is A.D. is that chances that the true value of the length will lie within the range
(5.62428571 ± 0.01273)cm are 50%, while the chances it will lie outside of this range are also
50%., Also
= x100% =0.2263%
EXPEREMENT-1
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF PRISM USING A SPECTROMETER
Objective: To determine the refractive index of the material of a given prism using a
spectrometer
Apparatus:
 a spectrometer,
 a spirit level,
 a source of monochromatic light (sodium vapour lamp),
 a glass prism,
 a magnifying lens and
 a reading lamp
Theory: When a beam of light strikes on the surface of transparent material (glass, water, quartz
crystal, etc.), the portion of the light is transmitted and other portion is reflected. The transmitted
light ray has small deviation of the path from the incident angle. This is called refraction.
Refraction is due to the change in speed of light while passing through the medium. It is given by
snell’s law.
= --------------- (1)

Where i is the angle of incident, r is the angle of refraction, n1 is the refractive index of the first
medium and n2 is the refractive index of the second medium. When a ray of light passes through
a prism, it suffers refraction as shown in figure1.
 Figure 1: Refraction of light by prism
We can apply Snell’s Law to the ray of light at each surface. This leads to the two equations,
= --------------------- (2)
= ------------------- (3)
The angle r1 and r2 are not independent, being related by the equation
A = r1 + r2, -------------------------- (4)

Where A is angle of prism.

Applying the exterior angle theorem we get,
= (i1 − r1) + (i2 − r2) ---------------------- (5)
Combining eq.(4) and (5), we have
δ = i1 + i2 – A ------------------------------ (6)
Solving eq. (2) and (3) for i1 and i2, respectively, we get
i1 = sin−1 (nsinr1) ------------------------------ (7)
i2 = sin−1 (nsin(A − r1))------------------------(8)
Finally, substituting these two equations into eq. (6) we get,
δ = sin−1 (nsinr1) + sin−1 (nsin(A − r1)) – A ---------(9)
In minimum deviation position, i1 = i2 and so r1 = r2 = r or
i = A/ 2----------------------------------- (10)
Then from eq.(6) we have, i2 = (δm + A)/2 ------------------------------(11)
 Substituting this into eq. (3) and solving for the index of refraction
gives,
--------------------(12) --------------(12)

Figure 2

Figure 2: Spectrometer
Procedure: (A) Telescope adjustment:
 The spectrometer and the prism table are arranged in horizontal position by using the
levelling screws (as shown in fig. 2).
 The telescope is turned towards a distant object to receive a clear and sharp image.
 The slit is illuminated by a sodium vapour lamp and the slit and the collimator are suitably
adjusted to receive a narrow, vertical image of the slit.
 The telescope is turned to receive the direct ray, so that the vertical slit coincides with the
vertical crosswire
(B) Measurement of the angle of the prism:
 Determine the least count of the spectrometer.
 Place the prism on the prism table with its refracting angle A towards the collimator and
with its refracting edge A at the centre. In this case some of the light falling on each face
will be reflected and can be received with the help of the telescope (as shown in fig. 3).
 The telescope is moved to one side to receive the light reflected from the face AB and the
cross wires are focused on the image of the slit. The readings of the two verniers are taken.
 The telescope is moved in other side to receive the light reflected from the face AC and
again the cross wires are focused on the image of the slit. The readings of the two verniers
are taken.
 The angle through which the telescope is moved; or the difference in the two positions
gives twice of the refracting angle A of the prism. Therefore half of this angle gives the
refracting angle of the prism.
Figure 3: Arrangement to determine the angle of prism.

(B) Measurement of the angle of minimum deviation:

 Place the prism so that its center coincides with the center of the prism table and light falls
on one of the polished faces and emerges out of the other polished face, after refraction.
The telescope is turned to view the refracted image of the slit on the other face (as shown
in fig. 4).
 The Vernier table is slowly turned in such a direction that the image of slit is move
directed towards the directed ray; ie., in the direction of decreasing angle of deviation.
 It will be found that at a certain position, the image is stationary for some moment.
Vernier table is fixed at the position where the image remains stationary. Using telescope
fine adjusting slider, make coincide the slit with cross wire.
 Note corresponding main scale and Vernier scale reading in both Vernier (Vernier
I and Vernier II).
 Carefully remove the prism from the prism table. Turn the telescope
parallel to collimator, and note the direct ray readings.
  Find the difference between the direct ray readings and deviated readings. This angle is
called angle of minimum deviation (δm). Refractive index of the material of the prism is
determined by using eq.(12)

Figure: Arrangement to determine the angle of minimum deviation

Observations:
1. Least count of spectrometer
One main scale division, N =. . . . . degrees
No. of divisions on Vernier, v =. . . . . .
Least count=N/v=. . . . . .Degrees =. . . . . .seconds
2. Wavelength of light used = . . . . . . . . . .
3. Table for the angle of the prism (A):
 * MSR = Main Scale Reading, VSR = Vernier Scale Reading, TR = MSR+VSRLC
= Total Reading
 Table for the angle of minimum deviation

Results:
1. Angle of prism: . . . . . . . . . .degrees
2. Angle of minimum deviation of the prism: . . . . . . . . . .
3. Refractive index of the material of the prism: . . . . . . . . . .
4. Percentage Error:

Precautions:
1. The telescope and collimator should be individually set for parallel rays.
2. Slit should be as narrow as possible.
3. Both verniers should be read.
4. The prism should be properly placed on the prism table for the measurement of angle of
the prism as well as for the angle of minimum deviation.
Sample viva voca questions:
1. What is monochromatic light?
2. What is angle of prism?
 3. What is angle of minimum deviation?
4. What is refractive index? What are its units?
5. What is the relation between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation?
6. How does the angle of deviation vary with the wavelength?
7. On what factor or factors does the angle of deviation depend?
8. Which eyepiece is used in the telescope of a spectrometer?
9. Will the angle of minimum deviation change, if the prism is immersed in water?

Experiment-2
Determination of Wavelength of Laser Light Using Transmission Grating
Objectives

 Determine the wavelength of the laser light using transmission grating.

 Determine the number of lines in a transmission grating

Apparatus:

 Diode Laser (Red 650 nm, Green 532 nm),

 Transmission Grating,

 Measuring Tape, Scale,

  Screen (Use plate clamp with bigger gap),

 Photodetector, Multimeter,

 Photodiode Array, CRO (optional Accessory)

Theory:

A transmission grating is an optical component which produces spectrum of light due to

diffraction. Grating has large number of lines grooved onto it. If d is the spacing between the

lines, the diffraction formula can be expressed as

(1.1)

where θ is the angle, n is the order of the spectrum and λ is the wavelength of the laser light. For

the first order spectrum, n=1, the relation becomes . If d (1/number of lines per cm) and

the angle θ measured, one can determine the wavelength of the laser light. Alternatively, if it is

assumed that the wavelength of the laser light is known, by measuring θ , one can determine the

number of lines per centimeter of the grating.

Fig 1 Experimental set for determination of wavelength of laser light using transmission grating

Method-1

Set up the experiment as shown in the figure 1 using the red diode laser. When the laser light

falls on the transmission grating, one can see many bright spots on the screen. The brightest spot

is the central maxima and on its both sides there are several bright spots of diminishing intensity

which show the different orders of diffraction. The first two spots on either side of the central

maxima are representing order one i.e. n=1. Similarly, the subsequent spots represent the orders

as 2, 3 4 and so on. In order to determine the wavelength of the laser light, one has to determine

the separation between the different orders w.r.t the central maxima. Let us find the separation

between the first order and the central maxima. Place the screen at an appropriate position such

that the distance between the various orders can be easily measured. Measure the separation of
the first order from the central maximal Let it be x (cm).Also measure the separation between the

diffraction grating and the screen. Let it be r (cm). Record the observation as per the observation

table. You can change the spacing between the screen and the diffraction grating to have various

observations.

Observation Table:

 Number of lines of the grating in lines/cm = ---------------------

 d= 1/number of grating lines per cm = -----------------------

 Order of the spectrum n = -------------------------

S.No x(cm) r(cm) θ=x/r sin θ

In the above observations, we have just considered the first order. One can use the higher orders

also. In that case, you got to know the order of the pattern i.e. what is the value of n.

Method-2

Again remove the screen and take the X- translation stage and mount the Si detector on it.

Connect the Si detector to the digital multi-meter which is put in the dc voltage mode. Position of
the X translation stage on the optical rail w.r.t transmission grating should be such that one is

able to cover the first order spots. The total movement of the X-translation stage is 15 mm.

Adjust the position the Si detector on the central maxima (look for the highest value of voltage

on digital multi-meter) and note the position of the micrometer on the X-translation stage. Now

start moving the stage towards one side till you reach the first order spot. This is shown by a

voltage value which is smaller than what is observed for the central maxima.(The central

maxima is brightest while the higher orders are of falling intensity). Note the position of the

micrometer. The difference of this value with the one for the central maxima gives the separation

between the two. Let this separation be x cm. Also measure the separation between the detector

and the grating using measuring tape or the scale. Let this be r cm. Then, calculate using the

following Eq (1.2)

radians (1.2)

Using Eq (2) calculate sin θ (Don’t forget to that angle is in radians). When the transmission

grating has 100 lines per mm or 1000 lines per cm, hence d becomes 1/1000= 0.001 in the

present case. Therefore, using the relation of calculate the wavelength of the laser light.

Method -3

The experiment can also be done using the photodiode array provided with the kit. Replace the

Si photo detector with photodiode array. This photodiode array has 1024 elements which are

separated by 7.8 µm. The total length of the array is 7.9872 mm. On the array, 6.4 ms

corresponds to 7.9872 mm. Connect the output probe of the array on channel 1 of 20 MHz CRO.

The probe shows the video output of the array on the CRO. You will see different peaks. The

highest peak is the central maxima and adjacent to it are different orders. Measure the time

separation between the central maxima peak and the first order peak. Convert the time separation
into distance separation. (On the array, 6.4 ms corresponds to 7.9872 mm)This will give you the

x value. Use the relation as for Si detector and calculate the laser wavelength. Finally repeat the

above experimental methods by changing the red diode laser with the green diode laser.

Alternatively, one can use the relation to calculate the number of lines of the grating.

Experiment-3

Determination of Wavelength of Laser Light Using Reflection

Grating

Objectives

 Determine the wavelength of the laser light using reflection grating.

 Determine the number of lines in a transmission grating

Apparatus:

 Diode Laser (Red 650 nm, Green 532 nm

 Reflection Grating, Measuring Tape

 Screen, Photo-detector,

 Multi-meter, Photodiode Array,

 CRO (optional Accessory)

Theory:
A reflection grating is an optical component which produces spectrum of light due to diffraction.

It has large number of lines grooved onto it. If d is the spacing between the lines, the diffraction

formula can be calculated using Eq (2.1)

(2.1)
where θ is the angle, n is the order of the spectrum and λ is the wavelength of the laser light. For

the first order spectrum, n=1, the relation becomes . If one know d (1/number of lines per cm)

and measuring angle θ , one can determine the wavelength of the laser light. Alternatively, if it is

assumed that the wavelength of the laser light is known, by measuring θ , one can determine the

number of lines per centimeter of the grating.

Fig 2 Experimental set for determination of wavelength of laser light using reflection grating

Method 1:

Set up the experiment as shown in the figure 2. You have to mount the grating on the circular

graduated table. Use the red diode laser. When the laser light falls on the reflection grating, one

can see many bright spots on the screen on the reflected side. The brightest spot is the central

maxima and on its both sides there are several bright spots of diminishing intensity which show

the different orders of diffraction. The first two spots on either side of the central maxima are

representing order one i.e. n=1. Similarly, the subsequent spots represent the orders as 2, 3, 4 and

so on. In order to determine the wavelength of the laser light, one has to determine the separation

between the different orders w.r.t the central maxima. Let us find the separation between the first

order and the central maxima. On the screen, measure the separation between the central maxima

and adjacent first maxima. The screen has a printed graph paper on it with minimum separation

between the two lines as 1 mm. The difference of this value with the one for the central maxima

gives the separation between the two. Let this separation be x cm. Also measure the separation

between the screen and the grating using measuring tape or the scale. Let this be r cm, so θ =x/r

radians. Calculate sin θ (Don’t forget to that angle is in radians). If the reflection grating has 50

lines per mm d becomes 1/500= 0.002. Use the relation of Eq. (2.1) and calculate the wavelength

of the laser light.

Observation Table:
 Number of lines of the grating _________ lines/cm
 d= 1/number of grating lines per cm=__________
 Order of the spectrum n = _______________
 S.No X(cm) r(cm) θ=x/r Sin θ







Method-2

The experiment can also be done using the photodiode array available in the kit. Replace the Si

photo detector with photodiode array. This photodiode array has 1024 elements which are

separated by 7.8µm. The total length of the array is 7.9872mm. On the array, 6.4 ms corresponds

to 7.9872mm. Connect the output probe of the array on channel 1 of 20MHz CRO. The probe

shows the video output of the array on the CRO. You will see different peaks. The highest peak

is the central maxima and adjacent to it are different orders. Measure the time separation between

the central maxima peak and the first order peak. Convert the time separation into distance

separation. (On the array, 6.4 ms corresponds to 7.9872mm)This will give you the x value. Use

the relation as for Si detector and calculate the laser wavelength. Repeat the experiment by

changing the red diode laser with the green diode laser. Also you can use the relation to calculate

the number of lines of the grating.

Experiment 4:- Determination of the Width of Single Slit using

Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern
Objective:
 Determine the width of a single slit using Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
 Apparatus:
 Diode Laser (Red 650 nm, Green 532 nm),
 Set of slits (Use plate clamp with smaller gap),
 Biconvex lens (15 cm focal length)
 Measuring Tape, Screen,
 Photo-detector, Multi-meter,
 Photodiode Array, CRO (optional Accessory)
Theory:
When a laser beam falls on a very narrow slit, it bends round the corners and produces different

orders of maxima and minima on the screen. The phenomenon of diffraction can be studied

under two heads, namely Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction. Fraunhofer diffraction is a special

case of Fresnel diffraction when the source illuminating the aperture and the observation screen

is located at infinity. When a lens is placed after the aperture, the diffraction pattern studied at

the back of its focal plane, the diffraction is called as fraunhofer diffraction. The slit width can be

calculated using Eq (3.1).

(3.1)

Where a is the slit width, f is the focal length of the biconvex lens, m and m’ are the orders of the

minima which are distances xm and xm’ from the central maxima and λ be the wavelength of the

laser source, then

Fig 3 experimental set up for the determination of the width of single slit using Fraunhofer
diffraction pattern
Method-1:
Set up the experiment as shown in the figure 3. Use the red diode laser. When the laser light falls
on the slit, one can see many bright areas separated by dark lines. The wide bright region is the
central maxima and on its both sides there are several bright regions separated by dark lines of
diminishing intensity which show the different orders of diffraction. In order to determine the slit
width, one has to determine the separation between the different orders w.r.t the central maxima.
On the screen, measure the separations between different minima. Let the separation of the first
minima from the central maxima be x m’ and let’s say for the fourth minima it be x m. The
separation between can be calculated as x m- xm’. Therefore, the slit width can be calculated using
Eq (2)

(3.2)
You can repeat the experiment with different sets of slits.
Observation Table:
 Focal length of the lens _________cm
 Wavelength of the laser ___________ cm
 S.No M xm(cm) m’ xm’ (cm)








Classify the diffraction as Fraunhofer or Fresnel based on the below relation Eqs. (3.3 and 3.4)

Fresnel diffraction occurs when:

(3.3)

On the other hand, Fraunhofer diffraction occurs when:

(3.4)

When a is the slit width, L is the distance of the screen from the aperture and λ is the wavelength

of the Laser light.

Method-2
The other method for measurements are remove the screen and take the X- translation stage and

mount the Si detector on it. Connect the Si detector to the digital multi-meter which is put in the

dc voltage mode. Position X translation stage on the optical rail at the focal plane of the biconvex

lens and adjust the position the Si detector on the central maxima (look for the highest value of

voltage on digital multi-meter) and note the position of the micrometer on the X-translation
stage. Now start moving the stage towards one side till you reach the first order minima (the dark

line). This is shown by a voltage dip. Note position of the micrometer. Let it be x m’. Keep

moving the X translation stage and choose fourth order minima. Note the position of the

micrometer. The difference of this position and that of the central maxima position gives us the

value of xm. Here we have chosen m’=1 and m=4. xm- xm’ is the separation. Furthermore, one can

use the Photodiode array for measuring the separation as described in earlier experiments. Also

repeat the experiment by changing the red diode laser with the green diode laser.

Experiment 5-Determination of the Diameter of a Pin Hole Using

Fresnel Diffraction

Objective:

 Determine the diameter of a pin hole from the study of Fresnel diffraction pattern

Apparatus:

 Diode Laser (Red 650 nm, Green 532 nm),

 Set of pinholes (Use plate clamp with smaller gap),

 Measuring Tape, Screen,

 Photodiode Array, CRO (optional Accessory)

Theory
When a laser beam passes through a pin hole, the distribution of light shows a bright maxima

surrounded by a number of secondary minima of decreasing intensity. The diffraction pattern is

in the form of concentric circles where there are bright areas between the dark concentric rings.

The phenomenon of diffraction can be studied under two heads, namely Fresnel and Fraunhofer

diffraction. Fraunhofer diffraction is a special case of Fresnel diffraction when the source

illuminating the aperture and the observation screen is located at infinity. When a lens is placed

after the aperture, the diffraction pattern studied at the back of its focal plane, the diffraction is

called as fraunhofer diffraction. We study the Fresnel diffraction in the present experiment. The

formula for calculating the diameter of the pin hole is using Eq (4.1). When the diameter of the

pin hole is d and the screen is placed at a distance b from the pin hole, then the radius of the nth

dark ring is given as

(4.1)
Experimental set up for the determination of the Diameter of a Pin Hole Using Fresnel
Diffraction
Method-1:
Set up the experiment as shown in the figure. Use the red diode laser. When the laser light falls
on the pin hole, one can see the appearance of many concentric circles. There are bright areas
separating the dark concentric rings. In order to determine the diameter of the pin hole, one has
to measure the radius of the nth dark ring. Let us measure the radius of the nth dark ring.
Remove the screen and place the photodiode array provided with the kit. This photodiode array
has 1024 elements which are separated by 7.8 µm. The total length of the array is 7.9872 mm.
On the array, 6.4 ms corresponds to 7.9872 mm. Connect the output probe of the array on
channel 1 of 20 MHz CRO. The probe shows the video output of the array on the CRO. You will
see different peaks. The highest peak is the central maxima and adjacent to it are different orders.
Measure the time separation between the central maxima peak and the first order peak. Convert
the time separation into distance separation. (On the array, 6.4 ms corresponds to 7.9872 mm)
This will give you the xn value. Use Eq. (4.1) to calculate diameter of the pin hole. There are
three pin holes provided with the kit. You can repeat the experiment with different pinholes.
Observation Table:
  Wavelength of the laser ___________
 Separation between the array and the pin hole _____________ cm

S.No n Xn







Classify the diffraction as Fraunhofer or Fresnel based on the relation mentioned in Eqs. (3.3 and
3.4). Repeat the experiment by changing the red diode laser with the green diode laser.

Experiment-6: Elliptically and Circularly Polarization of Light

Objective:
 Study of elliptically and circularly polarized light
Apparatus:
 Diode Laser (Green 532 nm), Kit Hardware,
 Polarizer, Analyzer,
 Quarter wave plate (λ/4), Si detector,
 Digital Multi-meter
Theory:
A quarter wave plate introduces a phase difference of π/2 or a path difference of λ/4 between the
ordinary and extra ordinary waves. When two plane polarized waves of unequal amplitude are
out of phase by π/2, their resultant is an elliptically polarized light. While the resultant of the
plane polarized waves of equal amplitude and a phase difference of π/2 is a circularly polarized
light. This is used for producing and detecting circularly polarized light.
Method:
Set the experiment as shown in the figure 5.1 . Adjust the polarizer and the analyzer such that
there pointers are at zero degree on the circular scale. Si detector is to be connected with digital
voltmeter in dc voltage mode. For 0 ο position of the polarizer, rotate the analyzer in steps of 10 ο

with full rotation of 360 ο. Record the observation as per the observation table 5.1. Repeat the
experiment for different positions of the polarizer. Plot a polar graph between the analyzer angles
vs. the intensity for different angles of the polarizer. It will seen that in most of the cases a figure
of eight will be obtained indicating elliptically polarized light but for some angle where a circle
will be obtained indicative of light being circularly polarized.

Fig 5.1 experimental setup for the study of elliptically and circularly polarized light

Observation Table:
S.No Angle through Photo-voltage V
 which Analyzer Different Positions of the Polarizer
is rotated 0ο 10 ο 20 ο 30 ο 40 ο 50 ο 60 ο 70 ο 80 ο 90 ο





Method-2
Other methods for showing the polarization of light are, polarization by reflection which was
first discovered by Malus in the early nineteenth century. If an unpolarized beam of light is
incident at an off normal angle on to an optical surface, the reflected as well as transmitted
beams become polarized to some degree. This is because reflectance differs for S and P polarized
lights. The experimental setup are shown in fig 5.2. Initially mount the glass plate perpendicular
to the incident laser light. Then rotate the circular graduated table such that light is incident on it
at an angle of say 50ο. Move the analyzer, detector assembly so as to receive the light reflected
from the glass plate.Rotate the analyzer in its own plane and observe the changes in the intensity
of light. Changes in the intensity indicate that the light has become polarized. Rotate the glass
plate to change the angle of incidence by 1 ο. Again rotate the analyzer to observe changes in the
intensity of light. At an incident angle if around 56 ο, changes in the maximum and minimum
intensity will be maximum. Plot a graph between angle of incidence and P. The value of angle of
incidence for which P is maximum corresponds to polarization angle.

Si Detector with Multi-meter

 Fig 5.2 Experimental set up for polarization by reflection of light

Experiment-7 :Michelson Interferometer

Objective:
 To set up the Path Length Modulation System (Michelson Interferometer)
Apparatus:
 He- Ne Laser,
 Kit Hardware,
 Biconcave Lens( FL -0.6 cm),
 Biconvex Lens (FL 15 cm),
 Path Length Modulation arrangement( 25 mm diameter X-Y optical Mirror Mounts,
 50 mm diameter X-Y optical Mirror Mounts),
 50 mm diameter Beam Splitter, 25 mm diameter Mirrors 2 no.,
 Screen, X translation stage
Theory:
A beam of light can be considered as a wave of oscillating electric and magnetic fields
(Electromagnetic wave). When two beams of light meet in space, these fields add according to
the principle of superposition. At each point in space, the electric and magnetic fields are
determined as the vector sum of the fields of the separate beams. If the two beams of light
originate from separate sources, there is generally no fixed relationship between the
electromagnetic oscillations in the beams. If two such light beams meet, at any instant in time
there will be points in space where the fields add to produce maximum field strength. However,
the oscillations of visible light are much faster than the human eye can respond to. Since there is
no fixed relationship between the oscillations, a point at which there is a maximum at one instant
may have a minimum at the next instant. The human eye averages these results and perceives all
this as uniform intensity of light. However, if the two beams of light originate from the same
source, there is generally some degree of correlation between the frequency and phase of the
oscillations of the two beams. At one point in space the light from the beams may be continually
in phase. In this case, the combined field will always be a maximum and a bright spot will be
seen. At another point the light from the two beams may be continually out of phase and minima,
or dark spot, will be seen. This phenomenon is called interference. This was first demonstrated
by Thomas Young. He allowed a single, narrow beam of light to fall on two narrow, closely
spaced slits. Opposite the slits he placed a viewing screen. Where the light from the two slits
struck the screen, a regular pattern of dark and bright bands became visible. When first
performed, Young’s experiment offered important evidence for the wave nature of light. Young ’s
slits function as a simple interferometer. If the spacing between the slits is known, the spacing of
the maxima and minima can be used to determine the wavelength of the light. Conversely, if the
wavelength of the light is known, the spacing of the slits could be determined from the
interference patterns.
Michelson Interferometer
In 1881, some 78 years after Young introduced his two-slit experiment, A.A. Michelson
designed and built an interferometer using a similar principle. Back in the early days, the only
waves that people could observe were those traveling in some sort of medium. For example, the
waves in a river or the ocean were seen traveling in water. Therefore, there natural conclusion to
be made by many people (Most importantly Huygens) that light, if it were to be a wave, and it
had been proven to exhibit characteristics of them, would have to be traveling in some medium.
As history would dictate, this mysterious medium that nobody could perceive with their senses
or instrument, would be deemed the "luminiferous ether". Light, as well as all of the solar
systems in the universe were said to be ensconced in this ether which would have to maintain a
wave speed of 3x 108 m/s (according to Maxwell's predictions at the time). The team of the two
professors, Michelson and Morley, would attempt to detect the presence of the elusive ether in
1880. To do so, they devised the interferometer which would allow them to observe the effect of
the motion of the medium upon the propagation of light. Hence, interferometry was born around
the famous "null outcome" experiment performed by Michelson and Morley in the late
nineteenth century. Originally Michelson designed his interferometer as a method to test for the
existence of the ether, a hypothesized medium in which light could propagate. Due in part to his
efforts, the ether is no longer considered a viable hypothesis. Michelson ’s interferometer has
become a widely used instrument for measuring the wavelength of light, and for using the
wavelength of a known light source to measure extremely small distances.
 The Michelson interferometer consists essentially of a beam splitter being positioned so
as to be 45 degree to an incident beam of light, and two plane front surface mirrors situated at
right angles to each other and at 45 degree to the beam splitter. The beam splitter produces from
the incident beam of light two beams having approximately equal intensities, one being reflected
from the front surface of the beam splitter and the other being through the back surface of the
beam splitter. Each beam of light is so reflected from one of the plane mirrors that the beams
retrace their paths. After reflection from the plane mirrors, the two beams are recombined at the
beam splitter to form an output beam (at 90 degree to the incident beam) capable of presenting
an interference pattern.
The interference pattern will vary cyclically with the relative displacement of the two mirrors in
directions normal to their surface. One of the mirrors usually remains fixed and the optical path
from the light source to the point of recombination of the split beams by way of the fixed mirror
is referred as the fixed leg of the interferometer. The optical path from the light source to the
point of recombination of the split beams by way of the movable mirror is referred to as variable
leg of the interferometer. A relative movement between the mirrors of half wavelength of the
incident light will cause intensity of the output beam to vary through cycles.
Method: This experiment involves a lot of patience. Don’t loose your patience while
working on this experiment.
Mount the optical rails with feet and without feet in such a manner that they form a + sign as
shown in the figure 6.1. Mount the He Ne laser on the post and place it on the optical rail. Place
the biconcave and biconvex lens combination appropriately so as to expand the incoming laser
beam. Place the beam splitter assembly on the optical rail. The beam splitter can be positioned
just above the intersection of the optical rails with and without feet. Approximate distance shall
be around 150 mm. The beam splitter is to be placed at an angle of 45 degree such that it
produces two beams perpendicular to each other. Position the carriage assembly( X translation
stage is to be mounted on 60 mm rider as shown in the figure) of adjustable mirror M2 on the
optical rail close to the beam splitter. The approximate distance between the adjustable mirror
M2 and the center of the beam splitter should be around 50 mm. Set up the fixed mirror M1 at
the same distance from the center of the beam splitter as M2. Place the screen at the end of the
optical rail so as to receive the recombined beams. Adjust the laser so that the beam is centered
on the adjustable mirror M2. Position the mirror M1 so that the laser beam reflected by the beam
splitter strikes it in the center. Two red circular spots should now be visible on the screen. By
turning the adjusting screws which control the orientation of mirror M2, the two light patches on
the screen are brought into coincidence. A slight adjustment of the laser and the beam splitter
assembly may be required at this stage. It may be necessary to bring the two patches past the
position where they should be superposed fringes are observed. Again to remind you this process
requires good patience and with practice, the expertise will develop. After fringes have been
obtained, the center of the fringe system can be brought into view by further small adjustments
of the two fine screws on the XY mounts. Please note that the screws should be turned little at a
time and in such direction as to increase the curvature of the fringes. The more precise the
adjustment during the previous steps, the wider the fringes will be. Try if you can fill the screen
with one fringe only.
If the two mirrors are accurately perpendicular to each other, the interference pattern will
consist of concentric circles. Move mirror M2 to about 40 mm from the center of the beam
splitter, quite a large number of circular fringes should be seen on the screen and the fringes will
be closely spaced. If M2 is moved inwards towards the beam splitter, gradually the fringe system
will contract and the fringes will disappear one at a time at the center of the pattern. This is how
one can set the Path Length Modulation System i.e. the Michelson interferometer.
 Fig 6.1 Experimental set up for Michelson Interferometer
References

 Hecht E (2003) , Optics, 4th ed. Addison Wesley, San Fransisco, USA
 Jenkins FA and White HA (2001). Fundamentals of Optics, Mc Graw Hill, 4th ed., 2001.

 Forsman EN, & Clark K C (1973). Measurement of the oscillator strength of the O

(1S–1P0) transition at 1217.6 A. Physical Review A, 7, 1203–1208.

 Milonni PW & Eberly JH (1988). Lasers , Wiley, New York

 Rao C N R(1975). Ultra-violet and visible spectroscopy chemical applications,

Butterworth and Co. Ltd, England

 Thorne A P (1988). Spectrophysics, Chapman and Hall Ltd,London

 Belay A(2010) Food Chemistry 121 (2010) 585–590