AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

ABSTACT

Air pollution poses a significant threat to public health and the environment, particularly in
urban areas experiencing rapid industrialization and population growth. This abstract
introduces an innovative Air Pollution Control System (APCS) designed to mitigate the
adverse effects of air pollutants and promote sustainable urban living. The proposed system
integrates advanced technologies, real-time monitoring, and adaptive control mechanisms to
efficiently manage and reduce air pollution.
Air Pollution Control System aims to create a holistic and adaptive approach to combat air
pollution, ensuring a healthier and more sustainable urban environment. Through the
integration of cutting-edge technologies and community engagement, this system strives to
pave the way for a cleaner and greener future for urban areas worldwide.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

Fig 1: Emission of polluted gases from industies

Air pollution is a pressing global challenge, particularly in densely populated urban areas
where industrialization, transportation, and various human activities contribute to the
emission of harmful pollutants. The detrimental effects of air pollution on public health,
ecosystems, and the overall quality of life underscore the urgent need for effective and
comprehensive Air Pollution Control Systems (APCS). This introduction provides an
overview of the significance of air pollution control and introduces the conceptual framework
of an advanced APCS designed to address contemporary environmental concerns.
The escalating levels of pollutants such as particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone have far-reaching consequences, leading to respiratory
illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and environmental degradation. As urbanization continues
to rise, the demand for innovative solutions that mitigate the impact of air pollution becomes
increasingly critical.
Air Pollution Control System presented herein integrates cutting-edge technologies, real-
time monitoring, adaptive control mechanisms, and community engagement to create a
multifaceted approach to air quality management. By amalgamating these elements, the
system aims to not only monitor and reduce pollutant levels but also raise awareness,
promote sustainable practices, and empower communities to actively contribute to the
improvement of their environmental conditions.
Air Pollution Control System is not just a technological solution but a paradigm shift
towards sustainable urban living, where environmental stewardship is a shared responsibility
and a foundation for a healthier and more resilient future.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

CHAPTER-2

TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS

Some of the air pollution control system applied for the reduction of air pollution are mention
below:

 Electrostatic Precipitators
 Scrubbers
 Thermal Oxidizer
 Incinerators
 Cyclones
 Air separator
 Biofilters
 Cyclones
 Catalytic Reactors
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

CHAPTER-3

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR

Fig 2: Electrostatic Precipitator

3.1 Construction of Electrostatic Precipitator
The device includes two sets of electrodes namely positive as well as negative. The
appearance of the positive electrodes is like plates whereas the negative electrodes are in the
shape of a wire mesh or rod. These two electrodes are arranged vertically one after another in
the precipitator.

3.2 Working of Electrostatic Precipitator

The working principle of the electrostatic precipitator is moderately simple. It consists of two
sets of electrodes: positive and negative. The negative electrodes are in the form of a wire
mesh, and the positive electrodes are plates. These electrodes are vertically placed and are
alternate to each other.

The gas borne particles such as ash are ionised by the high voltage discharge electrode by the
corona effect. These particles are ionised to a negative charge and are attracted to positively
charged collector plates.

The negative terminal of the high voltage DC source is used to connect the negative
electrodes, and the positive terminal of the DC source is used to connect the positive plates.
To ionize the medium between the negative and the positive electrode, a certain distance is
maintained between the positive, negative electrode and the DC source resulting in a high
voltage gradient.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

The medium that is used between the two electrodes is air. There might be corona discharge
around the electrode rods or the wire mesh due to the high negativity of negative charges.
The entire system is enclosed in a metallic container containing an inlet for flue gases and an
outlet for filtered gases. There are plenty of free electrons as the electrodes are ionized, which
interact with the dust particles of the gas, making them negatively charged. These particles
move towards positive electrodes and fall off due to gravitational force. The flue gas is free
from the dust particles as it flows through the electrostatic precipitator and is discharged to
the atmosphere through the chimney.

3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Electrostatic Precipitator

3.3.1 Advantages of electrostatic precipitator:

 The durability of the ESP is high.

 It can be used for the collection of both dry and wet impurities.
 It has low operating costs.
 The collection efficiency of the device is high even for small particles.
 It can handle large gas volumes and heavy dust loads at low pressures.
3.3.2 Disadvantages of electrostatic precipitator:

 Can’t be used for gaseous emissions.

 Space requirement is more.
 Capital investment is high.
 Not adaptable to change in operating conditions.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

CHAPTER- 4

SCRUBBERS

Fig 3: Scrubber

4.1 Construction of Scrubber

Scrubbers are devices to control air pollution and used to remove some particulates and gases
from industrial exhaust streams. Actually, in the scrubber system, the exhaust gas is passed in
the column from downside and scrubbing solution/material is sprayed at top. Here Liquid-Gas
i.e., wet scrubber or Gas-Solid powder i.e., dry scrubber operation takes place.

4.2 Working of Scrubber

A scrubber is a cleaning installation whose main purpose is to neutralize harmful components
in industrial air or waste gas streams. The removal of gas particles causing many problems from
the gas stream during the process is necessary before disposing of the gases in the open air.

In some cases, the use of a gas scrubber may allow recovering certain raw materials after the
treatment. A big advantage is the versatility of a gas scrubber in different areas. It includes the
chemical industry, the pharmaceutical industry, and surface treatment. The installation functions
by bringing a gas stream in contact with a washing liquid. Due to this contact, certain gaseous
components dissolve and remain in the water. There is a transfer of the components from the gas
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

phase to the liquid phase. This is the absorption process. The solubility of the elements in the
liquid will determine to what extent the gaseous components dissolve into the liquid phase.
Thus, it is of great importance to work with the correct fluid being as the absorption agent. Also,
besides the water, several organic or inorganic washing liquids can also be used for this purpose.

In these cases, certain chemicals or micro-organisms are added to the washing liquid in order
to convert or neutralize the dissolved gases. More strict measures are taken in terms of allowed
air pollution. Companies are being encouraged to take the necessary measures about it. Gas
scrubbers are essential in industries where employees face exposed to potentially contaminated
gases. When we use a scrubber in an optimal manner, we can achieve a very high removal
efficiency of the harmful gas particles. Therefore, the fumes released in the outside air are no
longer damaging to the environment.

4.3Types of Scrubbers

4.3.1 Wet Scrubbers

Wet scrubbers force the polluted fumes to pass through a wet limestone slurry which traps
sulphur particles. These can be used to control particulate matter less than 10 micrometres as
well as inorganic gases such as SO2, H2S, NH3, and various chlorides and fluorides. Wet
scrubbers may also be useful to control volatile organic compounds i.e., VOCs.
4.3.2 Dry Scrubbers
Dry scrubbers have an efficiency of more than 90 percent for removing SO 2 under the right
conditions, but they are limited to small- to medium-sized power plants of about 200 MW. Of
the 120 thousand megawatts of power generated from coal-fired power plants with scrubbers.

4.4Advantages and Disadvantages of Scrubbers

4.4.1 Advantages of scrubbers
 Safely handle combustible dust.
 Handle sticky or abrasive dust
 Remove unwanted soluble gases
 Remove fine particulate and mists.
4.4.2 Disadvantages of scrubbers
 Potential higher cost.
 Difficulty of wet waste disposal.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

 Pay higher energy costs

CHAPTER 5
THERMAL OXIDIZER

Fig 4: working of thermal oxidizer

5.1 Construction of Thermal Oxidizer

The construction of a thermal oxidizer involves several key steps to create an effective
pollution control device for industrial air streams. After selecting a suitable site and obtaining
necessary permits, engineers design the thermal oxidizer, considering factors like pollutant
types, air flow rates, and energy efficiency. The construction includes building a combustion
chamber capable of withstanding high temperatures and corrosive gases. Heat recovery
systems, if included, are installed to capture and reuse heat energy. Control systems for
temperature, flow, and safety are integrated, and insulation and refractory materials are
applied for thermal efficiency and protection. Ductwork and stacks are constructed to manage
the flow of polluted and treated air. Thorough testing and commissioning ensure compliance
with design specifications and regulatory standards. Operator training, comprehensive
documentation, and adherence to safety and environmental regulations are essential aspects
of the construction process. The thermal oxidizer is gradually started up, and its performance
is monitored, making adjustments as needed to achieve optimal functionality. Construction
requires collaboration among qualified professionals with expertise in air pollution control
and industrial processes.

5.2 Working of Thermal Oxidizer

A thermal oxidizer works by subjecting industrial exhaust gases containing volatile organic
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

compounds (VOCs) or hazardous air pollutants to high temperatures in a combustion

chamber. The elevated temperatures, typically ranging from 800 to 1,200 degrees Celsius,
cause the pollutants to undergo combustion, transforming them into carbon dioxide and water
vapor. The heat generated during this process can be recovered and used for energy
efficiency, while the treated air is released into the atmosphere, meeting environmental
regulatory standards for pollutant emissions.
5.3 Working of Thermal Oxidizer
5.3.1 Advantages of Thermal Oxidizer
 Thermal oxidizers are highly effective in eliminating pollutants
 Thermal oxidizers play a crucial role in helping industries comply with stringent
environmental regulations.
 Many thermal oxidizers incorporate heat recovery systems, allowing the captured heat
generated during combustion to be reclaimed and reused within the industrial process.
 Thermal oxidizers are versatile and can be adapted to various industrial applications
and processes.
5.3.2 Disadvantages of Thermal Oxidizer
 Thermal oxidizers require a significant amount of energy to maintain the high
temperatures needed for combustion.
 The high temperatures in the combustion chamber of thermal oxidizers can lead to the
formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are air pollutants with environmental and
health concerns.
 While thermal oxidizers are effective for a wide range of pollutants, they may not be
the optimal solution for certain compounds, such as particulate matter or substances
that are not easily combustible.
 The installation of a thermal oxidizer involves significant upfront capital costs,
including the construction of the combustion chamber, installation of control systems,
and, if applicable, heat recovery systems.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

CHAPTER-6
INCINERATOR

Fig 5: Incinerator

6.1 Construction of Incinerator:

Primary chamber: All garbage will be fed into the primary chamber and burned for the first
time there. The primary chamber is where the waste vaporises. The low air-to-fuel ratio in
this starved-air chamber causes the waste to dry out and makes it easier for it to evaporate,
burning up most of the carbon.
Secondary chamber: Waste-derived volatile/gasifier substances are transferred to the
secondary chamber. To complete combustion, more air is injected in the second stage into the
volatile gases created in the initial chamber. Temperatures in the secondary chamber are
higher than those in the primary chamber. Due to the appropriate residence time, high
temperature, and 100% surplus air in the secondary chamber, the gaseous products (volatile
material) are oxidized. The gases are handled after they exit the secondary chamber.
Finally, the gases are introduced to the droplet separator, where the moisture is taken out of
the gases. This lowers the temperature of the flue gas, making it safe to release into the
atmosphere.
Flue Stack: The term “chimney” also applies to the flue stack. Stack height requirements for
most incinerators are 3 meters or greater. In more populated places or where the atmosphere
requires it, this requirement will be greater.
Control panel and thermocouples: These regulate the machine’s operation and guarantee
that the chambers are heated up before any waste is loaded for incineration. Depending on the
type of waste, the settings can be tailored to the operator’s needs.
Burners: These are utilized to warm the incinerator up and are often turned off throughout
the burning process.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

Fuel tanks: The fuel is kept in storage. During the operation of the incinerator, the burners
will have direct lines into the tank.

6.2 Working of Incinerator:

The primary combustion chamber of the incinerator is intended for burning solid waste
or sludge oil, while the secondary combustion chamber is intended for burning off any
unburned exhaust fumes. A primary burner is installed in the primary combustion chamber,
which receives diesel oil to ignite it initially. After that, the primary burner receives the
sludge oil until it ignites. The primary burner is then turned off manually or
automatically. For effective combustion, the sludge burner receives atomizing air. To control
the amount of sludge entering the conversion space, a pressure-regulating valve is supplied
on the sludge return line. The primary burner’s heat will cause the solid waste to dry out and
begin burning, as well as ignite the sludge oil. The primary combustion chamber’s enormous
transmission area optimizes the solid waste’s drying and burning. The primary combustion
chamber’s gases will burn out in the secondary combustion chamber. The primary and
secondary combustion chambers are separated by a wall of ceramic heavy-duty refractory
liners. Solid waste is fed into the incinerator through the feeding door when it is solid garbage
or waste. The primary burner cannot be lit if this door is open, but the rest of the combustion
process continues as usual.

6.3 Advantage and Disadvantages of Incinerator:

6.3.1Advantage of Incinerator:

 Incinerators can reduce the total amount of garbage by up to 95% and the solid
portion of the original waste by up to 80–85%.
 Waste management can be facilitated and improved upon significantly through
incineration. Landfills only permit organic breakdown, while non-organic waste
continues to build up.
 Compared to landfills, solid waste incinerators are less likely to contaminate the
environment.
 Waste incineration facilities can be located close to cities or towns because they
require less space. This has the advantage of reducing the need for long drives to
dump waste.

6.3.2 Disadvantage of Incinerator:

 An incinerator plant’s construction requires expensive infrastructure and equipment,

which drives up the cost of the installation procedure.
 Even though garbage incinerators emit far fewer pollutants than landfills do, they
nonetheless have a considerable impact on pollution, especially in the vicinity.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

 Communities with waste incinerators are more likely to experience long-term

negative health effects like cancer, birth defects, reproductive dysfunction,
neurological issues, and other conditions known to occur at very low exposures to
many of the metals and pollutants released by incinerators.
 Operation and administration of incinerators demand expensive and highly
experienced labour.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

CHAPTER- 7
CYCLONE SEPARATORS

Fig 6: Model of Cyclone Separator

Cyclone separators or simply cyclones are separation devices (dry scrubbers) that use the
principle of inertia to remove particulate matter from flue gases. Cyclone separators is one of
many air pollution control devices known as precleans since they generally remove larger
pieces of particulate matter. This prevents finer filtration methods from having to deal with
large, more abrasive particles later on. In addition, several cyclone separators can operate in
parallel, and this system is known as a multicyclone.

7.1 Construction of Cyclone separators:

Cold rolled sheets are hot rolled products which provides a superior surface finish, with
improved physical properties of the steel, such as high formability, high strength, excellent
dent resistance, good magnetic properties, tensile strength, and workability and welding
properties. With Cold Rolling its thickness is reduced to precise gauges. CR Sheets are
available in sheets and coils.

7.2 Working of Cyclone separators:

Cyclone separators work much like a centrifuge, but with a continuous feed of dirty air. In a
cyclone separator, dirty flue gas is fed into a chamber. The inside of the chamber creates a
spiral vortex, similar to a tornado. This spiral formation and the separation is shown in above
Figure. The lighter components of this gas have less inertia, so it is easier for them to be
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

influenced by the vortex and travel up it. Contrarily, larger components of particulate matter
have more inertia and are not as easily influenced by the vortex. Since these larger particles
have difficulty following the high-speed spiral motion of the gas and the vortex, the particles
hit the inside walls of the container and drop down into a collection hopper. These chambers
are shaped like an upside-down cone to promote the collection of these particles at the bottom
of the container. The cleaned flue gas escapes out the top of the chamber.
Most cyclones are built to control and remove particulate matter that is larger than 10
micrometers in diameter. However, there do exist high efficiency cyclones that are designed
to be effective on particles as small as 2.5 micrometers. As well, these separators are not
effective on extremely large particulate matter. For particulates around 200 micrometers in
size, gravity settling chambers or momentum separators are a better option.
Out of all of the particulate-control devices, cyclone separators are among the least
expensive. They are often used as a pre-treatment before the flue gas enters more effective
pollution control devices. Therefore, cyclone separators can be seen as "rough separators"
before the flue gas reaches the fine filtration stages.

7.3 Advantage and Disadvantages of Cyclone separators:

7.3.1 Advantage of Cyclone separators:

 Cheap to purchase.
 Low maintenance.
 Suitable for high temperatures.
 Suitable for liquid mists.
 Do not require much space.

7.3.2 Disadvantage of Cyclone separators:

 Increased operating costs associated with the pressure drop (assuming large
pressure drop).
 Inefficient when handling small/fine particles.
 Not suitable for ‘sticky’ substances
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

CHAPTER- 8

AIR SEPARATOR

Fig 7: Air separator

8.1 Construction of Air Separator:

It consists of a vertical metal cylindrical vessel with the conical base at the bottom. The
feed inlet is fitted tangentially at the upper part of the vessel. The outlet for collected solids is
at the base of the conical portion whereas the fluid outlet is at the center of the top portion.
The fluid outlet pipe extends down below the inlet section to avoid air short-circuiting
directly from the inlet into the outlet. The rotating disc and rotating blades are fitted on the
shaft are placed at the center of the vessel. It has two separate outlets at the bottom for finer
and coarser/heavy particles.

8.2 Working of Air Separator:

The feed enters through the inlet tangentially in the upper part of the vessel. Feed falls on
the rotating blades. The rotating blades produce an air jet in the direction indicated in Fig.1.
The fine particles are blown away on the walls by the centrifugal force generated with the air
jet and are collected at the bottom. The coarser particles due to their large mass travel less
distance from the center of the separator and fall in the coarse particle collection zone which
is collected at its discharge.

8.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Air Separator:

8.3.1 Advantage of Air Separator:
 It is easy to install.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

 The rotor speed, as well as airflow, is adjustable.

 It has a high production output.
 It is easy to clean and maintain.
 It is superior to the sieving method in terms of output and quality of products.
 It is used in batch as well as continuous mode

8.3.2 Disadvantage of Air Separator:

 If particles are too fine (<5 µm) its efficiency decreases.
 It is not suitable for wet and sticky materials.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

CHAPTER -9

BIO FILTERS

Fig 8: Bio Filter

9.1 Construction of Bio Filter

To construct a biofilter for air pollution control, assemble a sealed chamber and fill it
with a growth medium like compost or peat moss. Introduce a diverse population of
microorganisms into the medium, enhancing their ability to metabolize pollutants. Install a
controlled airflow system to ensure effective contact between polluted air and the microbial
community. Regularly monitor and adjust conditions such as moisture levels and nutrient
content to optimize the biofilters performance in removing pollutants from the air in an
efficient and sustainable manner.

9.2 Working of Bio Filter

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

A biofilter is a bed of media on which microorganisms attach and grow to form a

biological layer called biofilm. Biofiltration is thus usually referred to as a fixed–film
process. Generally, the biofilm is formed by a community of different microorganisms
(bacteria, fungi, yeast, etc.), macro-organisms (protozoa, worms, insect's larvae, etc.) and
extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) (Flemming and Wingender, 2010). Air or water
flows through a media bed and any suspended compounds are transferred into a surface
biofilm where microorganisms are held to degrade pollutants. The aspect of the biofilm is
usually slimy and muddy.

Water to be treated can be applied intermittently or continuously over the media, via
upflow or downflow. Typically, a biofilter has two or three phases, depending on the feeding
strategy (percolating or submerged biofilter):

 a solid phase (media);

 a liquid phase (water);
 a gaseous phase (air).
Organic matter and other water components diffuse into the biofilm where the treatment
occurs, mostly by biodegradation. Biofiltration processes are usually aerobic, which means
that microorganisms require oxygen for their metabolism. Oxygen can be supplied to the
biofilm, either concurrently or counter currently with water flow. Aeration occurs passively
by the natural flow of air through the process (three phase biofilter) or by forced air supplied
by blowers.

Microorganisms' activity is a key-factor of the process performance. The main influencing

factors are the water composition, the biofilter hydraulic loading, the type of media, the
feeding strategy (percolation or submerged media), the age of the biofilm, temperature,
aeration, etc.

9.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bio Filter

9.3.1 Advantages of Bio Filter

 Biofilters are less subject to variable or intermittent loading and to hydraulic shock.
 Operational costs are usually lower than for activated sludge.
 The final treatment result is less influenced by biomass separation since the biomass
concentration at the effluent is much lower than for suspended biomass processes

9.3.2 Disadvantages of Bio Filter

 Biofilters may not be suitable for treating certain types of pollutants or contaminants.
 The effectiveness of biofilters is often influenced by temperature.
 It can take time for a biofilter to become fully active and achieve its maximum
efficiency.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

CHAPTER- 10
CATALYTIC REACTER

Fig 9: Catalytic Reactor

10.1 Construction of Catalytic Reactor

Constructing a catalytic reactor involves designing and assembling a system tailored to

facilitate specific chemical reactions using catalysts. Key steps include selecting appropriate
materials, loading the catalyst into the reactor, and implementing control systems for
temperature, pressure, and safety, followed by testing and commissioning to ensure proper
functionality. Regular maintenance and adherence to regulatory requirements are also
essential for sustained performance.

10.2 Working of Catalytic Reactor

A catalytic reactor operates by promoting and accelerating chemical reactions using a

catalyst, a substance that facilitates the reaction without being consumed. First, reactants are
introduced into the reactor, where they come into contact with the catalyst. The catalyst
provides an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy, enabling the reactants
to transform into products more rapidly than they would under normal conditions.
As the reactants pass over or through the catalyst, chemical bonds are broken and new
bonds are formed, resulting in the desired products. The catalytic process allows for increased
reaction rates, selectivity, and efficiency. The reactor's temperature, pressure, and other
operating conditions are carefully controlled to optimize the catalytic activity and product
yield.
Catalytic reactors are employed in various industries, such as petrochemical,
pharmaceutical, and environmental applications. Examples include fluidized-bed reactors,
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

where catalyst particles are suspended in the reactant stream, and fixed-bed reactors, where
the catalyst is stationary. The choice of reactor configuration depends on factors like the
nature of the reaction, the characteristics of the catalyst, and the desired scale of operation.
Monitoring and control systems continuously assess key parameters within the reactor,
such as temperature and pressure, to ensure optimal performance. The catalyst may need
periodic replacement or regeneration to maintain its activity.

10.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Catalytic Reactor

10.3.1 Advantages of Catalytic Reactor
 Catalysts facilitate chemical reactions by providing an alternative reaction pathway
with lower activation energy.
 Catalytic reactions often exhibit higher selectivity, meaning they favor the formation
of specific desired products while minimizing the formation of unwanted byproducts.
 Catalysts enable reactions to occur at lower temperatures and pressures than would be
required in their absence.
 Catalysts are typically not consumed in the reaction, allowing for their repeated use.

10.3.2 Disadvantages of Catalytic Reactor

 Over time, catalysts may lose their activity due to factors such as fouling, poisoning,
or thermal degradation.
 High-performance catalysts can be expensive, contributing to the overall cost of
implementing catalytic processes.
 Some reactions may not be easily amenable to catalysis due to unfavorable kinetics.
 Some catalytic reactions may involve hazardous reactants or products.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 18ME751

CHAPTER- 11
REFERENCE

 Ashmore, M.R. (2005) Assessing the future global impacts of ozone on vegetation.
Plant, Cell and Environment 28(8), 949–964.
 Bigazzi, A.Y. and Figliozzi, M.A. (2014) Review of urban bicyclists intake and
uptake of traffic-related air pollution. Transport Reviews 34(2), 221–245.
 Davis, L.W. (2008) The effect of driving restrictions on air quality in Mexico City.
Journal of Political Economy 116(1), 38–81.
 Fiore, A.M., Naik, V. and Leibensperger, E.M. (2015) Air quality and climate
connections. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 65(6), 645–685.
 Grant, U. (2012) Urbanization and the Employment Opportunities of Youth in
Developing Countries. UNESCO Report. Available at:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002178/217879e.pdf (accessed 2 July 2018).
 Heck, W.W., Taylor, O.C. and Tingey, D.T. (eds) (1988) Assessment of Crop Loss
From Air Pollutants. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
 IPCC (2013) Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group I
Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, ed. Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M.M.B., Allen,
S.K. et al. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York. DOI:
10.1017/CBO9781107415324